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Part   1  and  2 
by 
James   Peabody 


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RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND 
MANAGEMENT 


ONE  OF  A  SERIES  OF  TEXTS  ON  TRAFFIC  MANAGEMENT 


JAMBS  PBABODY 

Late  Statistician 
AtoMson,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company 


PART  1 

THE  EXECUTIVE.  ENGINEERING.  AND  OPERATING 
DEPARTMENTS 


La  Salle  Extension  University 
-     C  hi  c  a  gfo     - 

95^'^  tJNH^ERSlTY  of  CATJFORKtA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 


TRAFFIC  MANAGEMENT  COURSE 


The  subjects  listed  below  constitute  the  basic  material  of 
a  course  in  Traffic  Management.  This  course  is  especieJly 
designed  to  meet  the  constantly  growing  demand  for  efficiently 
trained  men  in  railroad  and  industrieJ  traffic  work  and  to 
meet  the  demand  for  men  competent  to  direct  the  work  of  com- 
mercial organizations  and  traffic  bureaus. 

Atlas  of  Traffic  Maps 

The  Traffic  Field 

Traffic  Glossary 

Transportation  in  the  U.  S. 

Some  Ways  of  Reducing  Freight  Charges 

Freight  Classification 

LaSalle   Consolidated   Freight   Classification 

Freight  Rates — Official  Classification  Terri- 
tory and  Eastern  Canada 

Freight  Rates — Western  Territory 

Freight  Rates— Southern  Territory 

Bases  for  Freight  Charges 

The  Bill  of  Lading 

Routing  Freight  Shipments 

Freight  Claims 

Investigation  of  Freight  Claims 

A  Primary  Lesson  in  Transit 

Demurrage  and  Car  Efficiency 

Application  of  Agency  Tariffs 

Publication  and  Filing  of  Tariffs 

The  Express  Service  and  Rates 

Ocean  Traffic  and  Trade 

Railway  Organization 

Railway  Accounting 

The  Law  of  Carriers  of  Goods 

Railway  Regulation 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Act 

Conference  Rulings 

Procedure  Before  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  and  Grounds  of  Proof  in  Rate 
Cases 

LaSalle  Practice  Tariffs 

Practical  Traffic  Problems 


RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND 

MANAGEMENT 


JAMES  PEABODT 

Late  Statistician 
Atehison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company 


La  Salle  Extension  University 
»    Chicagfo 

1924 

(0-14) 

12394t; 


Copyright,  1916,  1920 

All  Eights  Eeserved  in  All  Countries 

LaSalle  Extension  University 

xRINTED  IN  THE  U.  S.  A. 


in  4  1 

?  3/    r 


,  PREFACE 

it  .  .  . 

H.  The  object  of  this  work  is  to  summarize  the  organiza- 
tion and  management  of  representative  transportation 
companies  of  this  country;  to  ilhistrate  the  activities  of 
the  various  departments ;  and  to  show  their  relationship 
to  one  another  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  plain  to  the 
student  of  transportation,  and  the  layman  as  well,  the 

^   system  underlying  the  efficient  conduct  of  these  prop- 

^    erties. 

'^ "  As  the  work  is  one  of  a  series  dealing  with  interstate 
commerce  and  railway  traffic,  the  activities  of  the 
traffic  department  have  been  more  fully  shown  than  those 

<»l    of  the  operating  and  accounting  departments. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  work  the  author  gratefully 
acknowledges  the  assistance  and  criticism  of  Professor 
Ernest  Ritson  Dewsnup  of  the  University  of  Illinois, 
Mr.  Mark  Wymond  of  the  Central  Freight  Association, 

"^    Mr.  Ralph  Edgar  Riley  of  the  La  Salle  Extension  Uni- 

i    versity,  and  Mr.  John  P.  Curran  of  the  Central  Freight 

^    Association.  J.  P. 


CONTENTS 

I.     Introduction 

General  Scheme  of  Organization 3 

II.     Supervision 

The  Board  of  Directors 9 

General  Executive  Officers 11 

Financial   16 

The  Legal  Department 17 

III.  Engineering 

Construction    24 

Reconstruction    28 

Track  Elevation  31 

Additional  Main  Tracks 32 

Terminals  and  Yards 33 

Industrial  and  Spur  Tracks 34 

IV.  Engineering — Continued 

Design  of  Work 35 

Construction  Organization 37 

V.     Engineering — Concluded 

Electrical  Engineering   5Q 

Illustration  of  Engineering  Organization 60 

VI.     Operation — The  Operating  Unit 

Division  of  Work 66 

Combination  of  Division  Units — The  District.  69 

Major  Divisions   76 

Examples    78 

VII.     Operating — Conducting  Transportation 

Freight  Traffic  83 

VIII.     Operation — Conducting  Transportation — 
Continued 
Passenger  Traffic  97 

V 


vi  CONTENTS 

IX.     Operation  Maintenance 

Maintenance  of  Way 106 

Maintenance  of  Equipment 113 

X.     Operation — Mechanical  Department 

Types  of  Engines 115 

Classification  of  Locomotives  117 

Car  Design  and  Construction  118 

Maintenance  of  Equipment 120 

Officers  126 

Reports  and  Statistics  129 

XI.     Operation — Types  of  Organization 

Departmental  Organization   133 

Divisional  Organization   134 

Departmental  Versus  Divisional 135 

Design  Versus  Execution  137 

Reports  and  Statistical  Control  138 

Examples  of  Operating  Organization 145 

XII.     Traffic  Department — Sources  of  Revenue 

Freight  Traffic  155 

XIII.     Traffic  Department — Examples  of  Freight 
Traffic  Organization 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Organization. . .   166 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Organization  170 

Organization  of  the  Freight  Traffic  Department 
of  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  &  St.  Louis 

Railway    170 

Statistical  Control  171 

Tariff  Bureau  173 

XIV.     Traffic  Department — Passenger  Tr.vffic 

Advertising  for  Passenger  Traffic 187 

Railway  Passenger  Associations 189 

XV.     Traffic    Department — Auxiliary   Departments 

Freight  Claim  Department 190 

Industrial  Bureau   192 

Purchasing  Department  193 

Railway  Freight  Associations  193 


CONTENTS  vii 

XVI.     Accounting  Department 

Historical    200 

General    201 

Comptroller  202 

Auditors    203 

Valuation 209 

XVII.    Accounting  Department — Examples  of  Ac- 
counting Organizations 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Accounting  Organiza- 
tion     215 

Union  Pacific  Organization   217 

Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  Railway  Or- 
^  ganization    220 

XVIII,    Miscellaneous  Departments 

Real  Estate  and  Taxes  222 

Insurance  Department   223 

Testing  Department   224 

Publicity    228 

Policing    229 

Car  Accounting,  Car  Distribution,  Fast 

Freight    230 

Education    235 

Relief    237 

Pensions 238 

XIX.     Examples  op  Typical  Organizations 

Manistee  &  Northwestern  Railroad 240 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  System 244 

Purchasing  Department  251 

Conclusion  253 


RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND 
MANAGEMENT 

CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTION 

Aside  from  religion  and  education,  transportation  is 
the  greatest  work  of  the  age  and  as  such  is  attracting 
the  attention  of  the  greatest  men  of  the  age.  Next  to 
religion  and  the  public  school,  effective  transportation 
has  had  much  more  to  do  with  the  civilization  of  the 
world  than  any  other  one  thing.  Of  all  industries,  agri- 
culture alone  excepted,  transportation  employs  the 
greatest  number  of  people.  It  is  estimated  that  in  North 
America  it  involves,  directly  or  indirectly,  the  services 
of  one  out  of  every  sixteen  of  the  inhabitants. 

/The  prosperity  of  this  country  is  intimately  allied 
with  the  prosperity  of  the  transportation  industry. 
Statistics  prove  that  the  years  of  the  greatest  railroad 
earnings  are  reflected  by  the  greatest  mercantile  and 
industrial  earnings.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  transporta- 
tion systems  of  this  country  are  auxiliaries  of  the  busi- 
ness they  serve,  and  accordingly  the  far-seeing  business 
man  recognizes  them  as  his  railroads  or  his  transporta- 
tion systems  and  is  chary  of  doing  anything  or  of  having 
anything  done  that  may  impair  their  efficiency,  for  to 
the  extent  that  this  is  done  his  business  suffers. 

The  successful  manufacture  of  goods  is  contingent  on 
drawing  crude  or  unfinished  products  into  the  plant, 
converting  them  into  the  finished  product,  and  dis- 
tributing  them   for   sale   in   the   widest   possible   area. 

1 


2        RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Practically  everything,  to  have  value,  must  be  trans- 
ported from  places  where  it  is  plentiful  to  points  where 
it  is  in  demand,  and  the  plan  by  which  this  is  con- 
summated hinges  on  railroad  organization  and  manage- 
ment. 

The  development  of  these  organizations  has  been 
summed  up  by  one  writer  in  a  very  concise  manner  as 
follows : 


The  early  railroads  were  rarely  more  than  one  or  two  hun- 
dred miles  long.  The  officer  responsible  for  maintenance  and 
operation  was  personally  familiar  with  every  mile  of  track,  the 
characteristics  of  every  locomotive,  and  of  almost  every  employee 
on  the  payroll.  By  continual  travel  over  the  road  and  incessant 
supervision  this  officer,  the  man  immediately  responsible  to  the 
owners  of  the  road,  could  immediately  direct  the  application  of 
material  and  the  performance  of  the  employees.  As  many  of 
the  roads  were  extended  and  as  there  was  an  amalgamation  of 
the  smaller  roads,  this  minute  direction  of  the  one  responsible 
officer  passed  beyond  the  limits  of  any  one  man's  capacity. 
Certain  measures  of  authority  had  to  be  delegated  to  others, 
but  the  operations  were  not  often  so  extensive  as  to  baffle  the 
personal  inspection  of  the  responsible  manager.  As,  however, 
the  larger  railways  have  been  extended  over  thousands  of  miles 
and  there  has  been  an  amalgamation  of  large  roads  into  systems, 
each  penetrating  many  states,  traversing  both  lowlands  and 
mountains,  with  traffic  increasing  in  density  and  variety,  there 
has  arisen  that  complicated  organization  the  results  of  whose 
coordinated  performance  are  absolutely  beyond  unaided  physical 
perception.^ 


It  is  not  therefore  surprising  that  the  railroad  organi- 
zation to  the  uninitiated  seems  to  be  bound  round  and 
round  with  an  endless  amount  of  ''red  tape,^'  exhausting 
patience  and  trying  and  expensive;  whereas  if  the 
organization  were  properly  understood  and  the  actiW- 
ties  of  each  department  borne  in  mind,  this  seeming 
over-complexity  would  disappear. 


*  The  Workings  of  the  Railroad,  by  Logan  G.  McPherson. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Railway  administration  involves  so  many  and  such 
widely  varied  subjects  as  to  require  for  its  successful 
conduct  the  largest  possible  survey  as  to  commercial 
conditions,  coupled  with  a  knowledge  of  detail  that 
takes  into  account  all  the  varied  operations  incidental 
to  the  service.  Properly  to  manage  such  an  undertaking 
necessitates  the  employment  of  ''many  men  of  many 
minds,''  and  the  plan  by  which  homogeneity  and 
efficiency  are  attained  is  known  as  railway  organization. 

General  Scheme  of  Organization 

There  are  two  elements  in  any  undertaking:  the  plan 
to  be  followed — what  it  should  be  when  completed — and 
the  time  at  which  the  work  should  be  undertaken.  The 
first  involves  design  and  method;  the  second,  executive 
policy.  The  first  may  be  stated  to  rest  on  organization ; 
the  second,  on  management. 

Each  railway  organization  defines  the  duties  assigned 
to  every  member  of  the  staff  and  so  correlates  their 
assignments  as  to  cover  the  entire  field  of  operations 
and  at  the  same  time  to  avoid  any  conflict  in  their  per- 
formance. To  the  extent  that  this  is  lacking,  inefficiency 
and  consequent  needless  expense  will  follow.  The  lines 
of  demarcation  should  be  and  usually  are  sharply  defined 
and  their  strict  observance  insisted  upon;  otherwise 
departmental  bickerings,  the  bete  noir  of  railway  opera- 
tion, will  be  engendered  and  consequent  inefficiency 
promoted. 

In  the  last  analysis  the  business  of  transportation 
does  not  differ  materially  from  any  commercial  or  manu- 
facturing enterprise.  The  three  grand  divisions  are 
the  operating  department  (including  the  engineering 
and  construction  departments),  the  traffic  department, 
and  the  financial  or  accounting  departments,  these 
departments  corresponding  in  the  order  named  to  the 


4        RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

manufacturing,  sales,  and  accounting  departments  of 
industrial  or  commercial  organizations.  General  super- 
vision is  vested  in  a  chief  executive  officer  or  board, 
and  there  are  then  four  distinct  groups  of  transporta- 
tion company  employees,  as  shown  by  the  following 
diagram : 

EXECUTIVE 

(Supervision) 
Operating  Traffic  Accounting 

(Manufacturing)  (Sales)  (Financial) 

Anticipating  in  a  general  way  much  that  is  to  follow 
in  detail,  we  may  briefly  survey  the  respective  fields  of 
departmental  activity  and  aim. 

The  Executive  Department 

The  executive  department  provides  and  directs  the 
expenditures  of  the  money  to  build,  extend,  and  recon- 
struct the  railroad  and  to  equip  it  with  the  necessary 
rolling  stock.  The  executive  department  is  in  touch 
with  the  investing  public  through  the  treasury  division 
of  the  financial  department,  which  sells  the  securities; 
with,  the  business  public  through  the  purchasing  division, 
which  buys  all  material  necessary  to  the  maintenance 
and  operation  of  the  property;  with  property  o^vners, 
colonists,  and  emigrants  through  the  real  estate  division, 
which  leases  and  disposes  of  the  comj^any's  realty  hold- 
ings on  the  most  equitable  basis ;  and  with  federal,  state, 
,and  municipal  authorities  through  its  legal,  valuation, 
land  tax  sections.  It  makes  all  contracts,  except  those 
covering  traffic  agreements  with  railroads,  orders  all 
improvements,  extensions,  and  reconstmctions,  and  exer- 
cises a  general  supei^vision  over  all  other  departments. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

The  Operaiin-g  Department 

The  engineering  division  of  the  operating  department 
spends  all  the  appropriation  authorized  by  the  executive 
department  for  building,  equipping,  and  extending  the 
road.  The  engineering  division  is  concerned  with  the 
property  itself  and  has  little  contact  with  the  public. 
It  designs  and  constructs  the  original  railroad  with  all 
its  structures;  extends  and  revises  it  as  to  line,  grade, 
and  curves  where  required;  and  in  some  instances  has 
charge  of  the  maintenance  of  the  pennanent  way  and 
structures,  although  on  most  roads  this  function  is  dele- 
gated to  the  operating  division. 

The  operating  department  proper  designs  the  equip- 
ment employed  on  the  road;  conducts  transportation  by 
moving  freight  and  passenger  trains  over  the  road  as 
expeditiously  and  as  frequently  as  is  compatible  with 
existing  demand;  and  generally  maintains  the  railroad 
with  all  its  structures,  equipment,  rolling  stock,  tools,  and 
appliances.  In  these  days  when  service  is  practically  the 
only  inducement  that  competing  organizations  have  to 
offer  the  shipping  public,  the  operating  department  is 
called  upon  to  meet  such  competitive  service  as  may 
be  established  from  time  to  time  as  to  schedules,  trains, 
or  cars  for  both  passengers  and  freight. 

The  Traffic  Department 

The  traffic  department,  through  the  sale  of  transporta- 
tion, is  expected  to  supply  the  funds  necessaiy  to  operate 
and  maintain  the  railroad,  and  to  pay  interest  charges 
on  the  money  invested  in  the  roadbed  and  equipment  and 
the  taxes  which  are  levied  against  it,  having  something 
left  over  for  a  return  to  the  stockholders  or  investors. 
This  department  has  a  more  intimate  relation  with  the 
public   (so  far  as  freight  business  is  concerned)    than 


6         RAILWAY  ORCAXIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

any  other  department  of  the  road.  It  solicits  business 
directly  like  any  other  commercial  concern;  entertains 
all  complaints  for  real  or  fancied  faults  in  the  transpor- 
tation service;  adjusts  rates  to  meet  the  changing  com- 
mercial conditions;  and  defends  them  against  attack 
before  regulating  bodies  or  shippers.  It  is  charged  with 
the  duty  of  getting  the  business;  of  guarding  the  com- 
pany against  the  loss  of  revenue  and  business  by  keeping 
the  rates  so  adjusted  as  to  maintain  itself  against  com- 
petitors; of  developing  to  the  fullest  possible  extent  the 
resources  and  industries  within  its  own  territory;  and  of 
establishing  profitable  relations  with  its  connections  and 
competing  lines. 

The  Financial  Department 

The  financial  department  through  the  treasury  division 
is  the  custodian  of  all  the  company's  funds  and  its  pay- 
master for  all  departments.  It  is  responsible  for  all 
securities  and  for  the  proper  form  of  all  stocks,  bonds, 
and  notes.  It  is  informed  as  to  the  maturing  dates  of 
all  of  the  company's  securities  and  usually  advises  the 
president  and  the  board  of  directors  as  to  plans  for 
their  renewal. 

The  financial  department  through  the  accounting  divi- 
sion audits  and  keeps  the  record  of  all  receipts  and 
disbursements  of  money.  It  at  once  safeguards  the 
resources  of  the  company  and  analyzes  the  results  of 
its  operations.  It  makes  reports  of  the  business  and 
financial  status  of  the  company  to  the  various  regulating 
authorities. 

Subdivisions 

The  foregoing  summary,  however,  constitutes  only 
four  very  general  divisions  of  activity,  whicli  may  be 
further  analvzed  as  follows: 


INTRODUCTION 


,      .,  .  .  r   1,     Executive 

1.     Snporvising      |  ,      ^^^^^ 


2.  Manufacturing 

3.  Sales 

4.  Accounting 


.'3,  Engineering 

4.  Mechanical 

5.  Operating 

6.  Traffic 

7.  Purchasing 

8.  Treasury 

9.  Accounting 
10.  Valuation 


Of  those  departments  which  have  not  as  yet  been 
explained  in  the  preceding  pages  the  activities  may  be 
summarized  as  follows : 

The  mechanical  department  has  charge  of  all  matters 
pertaining  to  mechanical  engineering.  It  determines 
the  standards  for  various  classes  of  locomotives,  cars, 
and  other  equipment. 

It  has  general  charge  of  the  shops  and  other  facilities 
for  constructing  and  repairing  the  rolling  stock. 

The  legal  department  draws  up  deeds,  contracts,  and 
agreements  of  all  kinds,  acts  in  an  advisory  capacity  for 
all  departments  in  legal  matters,  attends  to  any  litiga- 
tion in  which  the  company  may  become  involved,  pre- 
pares mortgages  covering  the  company's  property,  and 
the  like. 

The  purchasing  department  is  like  the  ship 's  cook,  *  *  in 
every  man's  mess  but  in  no  man's  watch."  On  requisi- 
tion from  the  other  departments  it  purchases  all  sup- 
plies and  material  required  for  operation  or  for  renewals 
and  repairs,  and  sells  worn-out  material  which  has  a 
scrap  value. 

The  valuation  department  collects  and  tabulates  all 
the  necessaiy  data  to  determine  the  actual  value  of  the 
physical  equipment  of  the  company  in  connection  with 
the   investigations   now  being  conducted   by   state   and 


8        RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

federal  regulating  bodies.  The  values  are  prepared 
usually  to  justify  the  companies'  claims  in  regard  to 
existing  rates  or  proposed  advances,  as  well  as  to  show 
the  relation  between  the  actual  value  of  the  railroad 
property  and  its  capitalization.  These  values  are  some- 
times used  in  securing  additional  capital  loans. 

The  work  of  each  one  qf  these  departments  is  subdi- 
vided in  much  detail,  for  while  the  work  within  a 
department  is  directed  towards  a  common  purpose,  its 
accomplishment  requires  service  of  a  varying  character. 
The  diagrams  used  in  this  work  will  explain  in  detail 
the  character  of  each  one  of  the  general  subdivisions 
of  these  departments. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  on  smaller  roads  two  or 
more  of  the  departments  mentioned  will  be  combined  and 
managed  by  one  general  officer,  but  the  nature  of  the 
duties  will  be  much  the  same  on  a  small  road  as  on 
a  large  one.  In  fact  the  organization  of  the  larger 
systems  represents  the  combination  of  many  similar 
original  operating  units. 


CHAPTER  II 
supervision 

The  Board  of  Directors 

Since  a  corporation  is  an  artificial  entity,  it  can  act 
only  through  representatives.  These  are:  (1)  The 
majority  of  a  quorum  of  corporate  members  duly  assem- 
bled in  a  corporate  meeting;  (2)  a  majority  of  directors 
duly  assembled  in  a  directors'  meeting;  (3)  officers  of 
the  corporation  who  are  considered  parts  of  the  organi- 
zation; (4)  agents,  who  are  not  considered  parts  of  the 
organization,  but  who  represent  it  as  any  agent  does  his 
principal;  and  (5)  servants,  who  do  not  represent  it, 
but  simply  work  for  it. 

Shareholders  perform  the  extraordinary  and  unusual 
functions,  such  as  electing  directors,  accepting  and 
rejecting  amendments,  increasing  and  reducing  the 
capital  stock,  making  by-laws,  admitting  members,  and 
in  some  circumstances  removing  officers  or  restraining 
ultra  vires  transactions,  disposing  of  all  the  corporate 
property,  and  winding  up  the  corporate  business  or  sur- 
rendering the  coi*porate  franchise  and  so  dissolving  the 
corporation. 

The  directors  control  the  ordinary  business  affairs, 
such  as  the  policy  of  management;  the  decision  on  the 
expediency  of  acting  or  contracting;  selecting  the  higher 
officers,  fixing  their  compensation,  and  directing  their 
actions.  Within  this  scope  of  their  authority,  if  they 
act  in  good  faith,  the  stockholders  cannot  dictate  to 
them,  nor  control  their  acts  in  any  particular;  the  stock- 
holders' business  must  wait  until  the  time  for  a  new 

9 


10      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

election  for  selecting  sucli  directors  as  will  conform 
to  their  wishes,  unless  the  power  of  removal  of  officers 
has  been  reserved  to  the  shareholders  by  statute,  charter, 
or  by-law  provisions. 

The  board  of  directors  for  a  local  line  represents 
the  larger  business  interests  of  communities  through 
which  the  road  is  constructed,  who  have  subscribed  to 
securities  or  pledged  themselves  for  the  amount  neces- 
sary to  construct  the  properties.  As  a  rule,  they  choose 
as  president  one  of  their  most  influential  men  of  affairs. 

The  ownership  of  larger  systems,  however,  is  a  matter 
of  some  interest.  The  best  figures  obtainable  as  to  the 
number  of  railroad  stockholders  show  440,000,  and  w^hile 
the  number  of  bondholders  cannot  be  determined  with 
the  same  accuracy,  information  concerning  a  few  of 
the  railroads  develops  that  the  number  of  bondholders 
exceeds  the  number  of  stockholders  and  that  1,000,000 
is  not  an  unfair  figure  to  represent  those  who  hold  rail- 
way securities.  Many  of  these  holders  are  women  and 
children,  charitable  institutions,  savings  banks,  insurance 
companies,  and  trust  companies.  The  average  for  each 
owner  of  railroad  property  is  $13,600.  Of  course,  some 
individuals  hold  very  much  more  than  this  and  very 
many  hold  very  much  less,  but  the  statement  that  rail- 
ways are  owoied  and  controlled  by  a  very  few  rich  men 
is  not  correct.  These  1,000,000  owners  represent  at  least 
4,000,000  people  in  the  United  States,  w^hose  daily  bread 
and  butter  depends  more  or  less  on  the  success  or  failure 
of  railways.^ 

The  owners  of  the  property  may  vote,  directly  or  by 
proxy,  for  one  or  more  of  their  members  or  competent 
talent  to  act  as  directors  to  manage  and  direct  affairs 
of  the  corporation,  the  whole  of  the  directors  collectively 
forming  the  board  of  directors. 


'  From  an  address  by  Howard  Elliott,  Montana  State  Fair,  Helena,  ilont., 
September  26,   1910. 


SUPERVISION  11 

In  these  days,  when  the  insurance  companies  and  other 
corporations  hold  enormous  blocks  of  railway  securities, 
they  are  frequently  in  a  situation  to  elect  their  nominee. 

The  board  of  directors,  in  most  cases,  nominate  one 
of  their  members  to  act  as  chainnan  of  the  board, 
and  not  infrequently  the  chairman  of  the  board  is  also 
the  president  of  the  organization.  In  a  number  of  cases, 
however,  the  office  of  the  president  is  entirely  separate 
from  the  board  and  the  president  reports  to  the  chair- 
man of  the  board. 

The  directors  must  also  act  in  a  duly  called  meeting. 
They  have  no  authority  to  bind  a  corporation  by  their 
individual  acts  done  outside  the  corporate  meetings. 
In  the  absence  of  a  provision  to  the  contrary,  the 
quorum  of  the  directors'  meeting  is  a  majority  of  all 
the  directors.  They  vote  as  individuals  and  not  accord- 
ing to  shares,  and  cannot  vote  by  proxy. 

General  Executive  Officers 
The  President  and  Vice  Presidents 

In  the  earlier  history  of  railroading,  the  participation 
of  the  president  in  the  management  of  the  physical  prop- 
erty was  usually  only  nominal.  In  many  instances  his 
financial  standing,  national  or  social  prominence,  or 
ability  as  a  diplomat  in  dealing  with  investors  or  the 
general  public  had  more  to  do  with  his  selection  than 
his  knowledge  of  practical  railroading.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  board  of  directors  and  keeper  of  the  company's 
seal,  but  his  direction  over  the  practical  affairs  of  the 
company  was  only  very  general. 

This,  as  one  might  suppose,  was  very  unsatisfactory. 
Executive  orders  would  be  issued  and  policies  outlined 
which  militated  against  the  interests  of  the  property, 
in  that  their  ultimate  effect  could  not  be  readilv  antici- 


]2       RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

pated  or  perceived  by  sucli  executives,  who  were 
unacquainted  with  the  inner  workings  and  routine  of 
railroading.  For  some  years  past,  the  presidents  of 
practically  all  the  railroads  have  been  men  who  have 
risen  in  the  railroad  service  from  the  ranks.  Much 
the  larger  proportion  come  from  the  operating  depart- 
ment because  that  employs  the  greatest  number  of  men. 
There  are  many,  however,  who  have  achieved  their  posi- 
tion by  promotion  through  the  traffic  or  the  financial 
department. 

The  president  executes  the  plans  of  the  directors  by 
assigning  to  each  department  its  proper  place  in  the 
scheme  of  affairs,  in  harmony  with  the  particular  line 
of  work  which  may  be  assigned  to  that  di\'ision. 

The  president  has  general  supervision  and  direction 
of  all  departments.  He  usually  has  an  assistant  who 
relieves  him  of  the  detail  and  routine  work  of  the  office 
as  much  as  possible.  There  may  also  be  one  or  more 
vice  presidents,  the  number  varying  according  to  the 
size  of  the  organization.  They  are  generally  at  the  head 
of  separate  departments,  acting  mth  the  president  in 
an  advisory  capacity. 

Typical  illustrations  will  be  given  to  show  the  general 
office  organization  of  various  railroads  and  transporta- 
tion systems. 

The  Nashville,  Chattanooga  &  St.  Louis  Railway 
(1,230  miles),  has  one  vice  president  assisting  the  presi- 
dent.    He  is  in  charge  of  the  traffic  of  the  road. 

The  title  of  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  accounting 
and  treasury  departments  is  comptroller;  of  the  oper- 
ating department,  general  manager. 

On  the  Norfolk  &  "Western  Railway  (2,043  miles),  the 
president  has  an  assistant  and  three  vice  presidents.  The 
first  vice  president  is  in  charge  of  the  treasury  and 
accounting  departments.     The  second  vice  president  is 


SUPERVISION  13 

also  general  manager  and  has  charge  of  the  operations 
of  the  transportation  department,  general  supervision 
of  all  railroad  property,  and  responsibility  for  its  safe 
and  economical  management.  The  third  vice  president 
is  the  traffic  manager  and  has  general  control  of  the 
traffic  department. 

The  Louisville  &  Nashville  Railway  (4,937  miles)  has 
a  president  and  first  vice  president  reporting  to  the 
board  of  directors.  Three  other  ranking  vice  presidents 
report  to  the  first  vice  president.  The  second  vice  presi- 
dent is  in  charge  of  the  financial  and  accounting  depart- 
ments. The  third  vice  president  has  two  assistants  and 
supervises  all  traffic.  The  fourth  vice  president  has 
supervision  of  the  transportation  and  of  the  engineering 
and  mechanical  departments.  The  secretary,  purchas- 
ing agent,  and  general  counsel  in  charge  of  the  legal 
department  also  report  to  the  first  vice  president. 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad  System  has  a  president 
and  an  assistant  and  six  vice  presidents,  each  in  charge 
of  certain  phases  of  railroad  work.  The  vice  president 
in  charge  of  operation  supervises  transportation,  the  me- 
chanical department,  maintenance  of  way,  and  the  pen- 
sion and  relief  departments.  Another  vice  president  has 
charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  traffic.  The  next  vice 
president  is  in  charge  of  finance  and  supervises  the 
treasury  department  and  the  employees'  savings  fund. 
There  is  another  vice  president  in  charge  of  real  estate, 
purchases,  stores,  and  insurance.  A  fifth  vice  president 
has  charge  of  the  accounting  department,  while  the  last 
one  deals  only  with  the  intercorporate  relations  of  the 
roads  comprising  the  system.  Two  general  counsels,  one 
at  Philadelphia  and  one  at  Pittsburg,  and  the  secretary, 
report  to  the  president. 

The  organization  in  charge  of  the  18,000  miles  of  rail- 
road formerly  under  one  control  and  known  as  the 
Harriman  Lines  is  particularly  interesting  by  reason  of 


14      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  large  amount  of  mileage  involved.  It  has  been 
altered  somewhat  by  the  segregation  of  some  portions 
of  the  system  and  other  causes.  Originally  the  system 
comprised  the  Oregon- Washington  Railroad  &  Naviga- 
tion Company,  The  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  the  Oregon 
Short  Line  Railroad,  and  the  Southern  Pacific  Company 
(Lines  in  Louisiana,  Texas,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and 
Mexico). 

Reporting  to  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors 
and  the  president  was  a  director  of  maintenance  and 
operation  wdio  had  supervision  over  the  approximately 
18,000  miles  of  lines.  Under  this  director,  in  addition 
to  the  vice  presidents  (and  the  president  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Company  lines  in  Mexico),  were  two  assistant 
directors,  director  of  purchases  and  supplies,  mail  traffic 
manager,  electrical  engineer,  and  consulting  engineer — 
all  staff  officers;  that  is,  system  officers  without  direct 
charge  of  particular  sections  of  the  line. 

Each  of  the  constitutent  companies  of  the  system 
(except  the  Southern  Pacific  Company  lines  in  Mexico 
which  were  under  the  supervision  of  a  president),  was 
under  the  supervision  of  a  vice  president  reporting  also 
to  the  director  of  maintenance  and  operation. 

The  purpose  of  this  form  of  organization  is  stated 
by  the  director  of  maintenance  and  operation  to  be 
**that  the  different  properties  be  brought  into  close 
relationship  with  each  other,  yet  preserve  a  full  measure 
of  autonomy.  .  .  .  The  office  of  director  standardizes 
and  correlates,  supervises  and  investigates,  equalizes  and 
differentiates  as  among  different  properties,  but  leaves 
each  to  w^ork  out  its  o^^^l  problems  of  administration. 
The  management  of  the  properties  is  vested  in  seven 
operating  vice  presidents,  each  of  whom  is  working 
out  solutions  of  problems  on  his  line  which  are  common 
to  all.    A  study  of  seven  solutions  of  the  same  problem 


SUPERVISION  15 

must  necessarily  demonstrate  that  one  of  the  solutions 
is  the  best."^ 

The  discussion  of  the  other  departments — legal,  finan- 
cial, traffic,  etc. — of  this  system  would  not  disclose  any 
new  principles  and  is  therefore  omitted. 

The  duties  of  the  various  vice  presidents  and  other 
officials  mentioned,  where  they  are  not  obvious,  are  dis- 
cussed later  under  the  various  departments  to  which 
they  may  be  assigned. 

The  Secretary 

The  secretary  gives  notice  of  all  meetings  of  the  board 
of  directors  and  keeps  a  record  of  its  proceedings  and  in 
some  instances  of  the  meetings  of  its  special  or  stand- 
ing committees. 

He  attends  to  the  publication  of  legally  required 
notices  of  annual  and  special  meetings  of  stockholders 
and  of  elections.  He  notifies  the  chief  financial  officer, 
whatever  his  title  may  be,  of  all  action  taken  by  the 
board  in  the  sale  or  purchase  of  securities  and  all  its 
transactions  involving  the  receipt  or  disbursement  of 
money  by  the  railway  company. 

Transfers  of  stock  and  books  shoudng  its  o^vnership — 
except  stock  registers — are  under  his  charge.  He  signs 
all  stock  certificates  and  has  custody  of  the  originals  of 
contracts  and  agreements  made  by  the  board. 

Under  the  direction  of  the  secretary,  the  transfer  clerk 
has  charge  of  stock  transfers  and  the  books  showing  its 
ownership.  He  prepares  for  the  treasurer  the  dividend 
list  and  for  the  board  of  directors  the  list  of  the  stock- 
holders who  are  entitled  to  vote  at  the  stockholders' 
meetings. 


'From  an  address  by  Mr.  Julius  Kruttschnitt,  director  of  Harrinian 
Lines,  before  the  New  York  Railroad  Club, 


IG      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Financial. 
Registrar  of  Stock 

This  officer  is  under  the  direction  of  the  official  at 
the  head  of  the  financial  department  and  is  responsible 
for  the  registration  of  the  stock  certificates.  After 
transfers  have  been  made  he  cancels  the  old  certificate 
and  signs,  as  registrar,  the  new  certificates  issued  in 
their  place. 

Treasury  Department 

The  treasurer  is  the  custodian  of  the  money  and 
securities  belonging  to  the  railroad.  The  sources  from 
which  funds  are  received  by  him  are:  earnings  from 
operation,  that  is  freight,  passenger,  mail,  and  express 
revenue;  rentals  for  use  of  company  property;  interest 
and  dividends  upon  securities  owned  by  the  company; 
payment  by  subsidiary,  allied,  or  other  companies  of 
loans  made  by  this  company;  sale  of  bonds,  stocks,  or 
notes.  The  principal  source  of  revenue  is  the  remit- 
tances received  from  the  company's  agents,  who  send 
the  money  direct  to  the  treasurer. 

The  payments  made  by  him  are  for  labor,  as  shown 
by  the  company's  pay  rolls;  for  material  used  by  the 
company  in  maintenance  and  operation;  for  construction 
work;  for  certified  claims  against  the  company;  for 
taxes,  interest  on  bonds,  notes,  and  indebtedness,  and 
dividends  on  stock. 

He  makes  arrangements  for  the  banking  facilities 
required  by  agents  and  others  on  the  road,  and  in  con- 
sequence must  be  advised  of  the  condition  of  banks 
and  places  of  deposit. 

He  keeps  a  set  of  books  showing  the  receipt  and  dis- 
bursement of  all  money  he  handles  and  furnishes  the 
comptroller  daily  a  statement  of  all  money  transactions. 


SUPERVISION  17 

His  books  are  balanced  monthly  by  the  comptroller.  He 
also  reports  to  the  board  of  directors  at  each  of  its 
meetings  his  receipts  and  disbursements  since  the  pre- 
vious meeting. 

He  receipts  vouchers  and  indorses  checks  dra^vn  in 
his  company's  favor,  and  issues  instructions  to  all 
money-receiving  agents  of  the  company  as  to  the  time 
and  manner  of  making  remittances. 

He  is  charged  with  keeping  sufficient  funds  on  hand 
to  meet  all  obligations,  but  must  keep  all  funds  not  so 
employed  at  interest.  In  order  to  do  this  he  is  fur- 
nished periodically  with  estimates  of  the  requirements 
for  maintenance  and  construction  and  of  probable 
receipts  from  traffic  and  transportation  sources. 

The  Legal  Department 

This  department,  while  a  distinct  unit  in  railroad 
organization,  is  very  closely  allied  with  the  executive 
department.  The  fact  that  legislation  has  hemmed  rail- 
road operation  with  a  veritable  hedge  of  ''thou  shalts" 
and  "thou  shalt  nots"  has  necessitated  the  employment 
of  the  most  competent  legal  talent  to  see  that  the  many 
angles  of  finance  operation  and  regulation  are  fully  and 
adequately  complied  with. 

The  General  Counsel 

The  general  counsel  bears  much  the  same  relation 
to  the  railroad  corporation  that  the  doctor  does  to  the 
ordinary  mortal;  namely,  he  sees  it  into  the  world,  acts 
as  its  adviser  during  its  progress  through  life,  and 
finally  commits  it  to  oblivion — e.  g.,  in  banki*uptcy  or 
consolidation.  He  sometimes  goes  even  further  and 
resurrects  it  in  a  reorganization. 


18      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
Corporate  xidvice 

A  very  large  part  of  the  time  of  the  law  department 
is  devoted  to  giving  verbal  and  written  opinions  on  ques- 
tions submitted  to  it  by  all  departments,  under  the  gen- 
eral impression  perhaps  that  it  is  better  to  see  your 
lawyer  before  taking  an  important  step  than  afterward. 

The  very  suggestion  that  the  road  is  to  be  built  calls 
for  the  services  of  legal  talent.  It  is  necessary  to  obtain 
a  charter  from  the  state  in  organizing  a  railroad  cor- 
poration. Through  a  charter  only  can  it  obtain  the  right 
to  charge  for  transporting  passengers  and  goods  and 
the  right  to  condemn  land  in  acquiring  its  right  of 
way  and  other  real  estate.  The  state  has  the  right 
to  acquire  land  for  public  purposes  and  it  delegates 
this  right,  with  certain  limitations,  to  a  railroad  company 
by  means  of  its  charter.  The  work  of  preparing  the 
necessary  legal  forms  and  securing  the  charter  is  of 
necessity  delegated  to  the  legal  department,  as  are  the 
preparation  of  the  by-laws  governing  the  conduct  of 
the  business  and  management  of  the  company,  and  the 
drafting  and  amending  of  the  by-laws  from  time  to  time 
as  the  occasion  demands. 

When  railroad  corporations  are  consolidated  with 
each  other,  or  when  railroads  are  purchased,  the  minutes 
of  the  meetings  of  the  stockholders  of  both  companies 
are  often  most  elaborate  and  must  be  drawn  with  care 
to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  state  laws.  When 
other  companies  are  leased,  the  terms  and  conditions 
of  the  lease  as  to  payments,  improvements,  and  additions 
to  the  leased  property  must  be  carefully  stated  to  pro- 
tect the  interests  of  both  companies. 

Most  of  our  roads  have  undergone  reorganization  on 
one  or  more  occasions.  This  involves  an  immense 
amount  of  legal  work  in  drawing  agreements  and  adjust- 


SUPERVISION  19 

ing  differences  among  the  holders  of  different  classes  of 
the  outstanding  securities. 

The  important  corporate  action  of  the  board  of 
directors  generally  takes  the  form  of  written  resolu- 
tions, and  these  with  the  minutes  of  the  meetings  of 
the  board  have  a  direct  legal  bearing  on  the  securities 
issued  by  the  company.  Such  resolutions  and  minutes 
are  drawn  therefore  with  the  greatest  care  by  the 
legal  department,  as  the  validity  of  securities  represent- 
ing very  large  sums  of  money  is  involved. 

The  security  for  the  bond  issues  of  the  company  is 
the  mortgages,  given  by  it  on  its  physical  property  or 
other  valuable  possessions.  The  provisions  of  a  mort- 
gage must  be  such  as  to  secure  the  bondholders  to  the 
greatest  extent  and  yet  not  hamper  the  company  any 
further  than  is  absolutely  necessary  in  carrying  out  a 
constructive  financial  program  involving  possible  future 
borrowing.  This  requires  legal  skill  of  the  highest 
order. 

When  a  railroad  company  is  unable  to  buy  required 
equipment  outright,  either  through  the  embarrassing 
provisions  of  former  mortgages  or  for  other  reasons, 
contracts  for  its  conditional  purchase  must  be  drawn. 
In  other  cases  such  needs  may  be  better  supplied  through 
a  lease.  In  either  case,  as  large  sums  of  money  are 
usually  involved,  the  drawing  of  the  contract  or  lease 
requires  technical  legal  knowledge. 

The  legal  department  is  also  called  upon  by  all 
departments  of  the  railroad  to  prepare  contracts  and 
agreements.  Traffic  arrangements  between  connecting 
roads  are  often  reduced  to  written  contracts.  Traffic 
rights  are  granted  to  one  railroad  company  over  the 
lines  of  another,  and  the  conditions  attending  such 
matters  must  be  carefully  stated  to  avoid  misunder- 
standing, probable  litigation,  and  the  contingent  expense. 


20       RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

So  with  the  carrying  of  express  and  mail ;  the  operation 
of  sleeping  cars  or  other  special  equipment;  the  use 
of  union  passenger  stations;  the  construction  of  new 
lines,  additional  tracks,  or  other  improvements;  cross- 
ings (either  grade  or  overhead);  interlocking  plants; 
the  construction  of  industrial  spur  tracks;  licenses  to 
erect  wires  along  or  across  the  right  of  way  or  to 
lay  pipes  or  make  ditches  on,  along,  or  under  the  road- 
bed; the  use  of  bridges,  ferries,  and  terminals;  and  the 
purchase  of  coal  and  the  like — these  are  but  a  few  of 
the  many  problems  that  may  be  referred  to  the  legal 
department  for  their  advice.  True,  in  many  instances 
there  is  a  form  to  fit  a  particular  occasion,  like  the 
construction  of  a  side  track  or  the  lease  of  property, 
that  has  been  drawn  and  approved  for  future  use,  but 
the  importance  of  many  of  the  projects  is  such  that  it 
is  highly  desirable  that  the  document,  with  the  many 
** riders"  that  have  been  attached,  be  passed  upon  by 
the  legal  department  before  being  executed  by  the 
respective  officials. 

The  regulation  of  the  railroads  by  the  states  and  by 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  is  becoming  more 
pressing  and  intimate.  It  is  recognized  that  in  principle 
this  is  necessary  and  just,  but  in  recent  years  there 
has  been  proposed  and  passed  much  legislation  that  is 
contrary  to  the  best  interests  of  effective  transportation 
and  of  the  shipping  public,  proffered  by  legislators 
unacquainted  with  the  practical  side  of  transportation. 

Litigation 

The  nature  of  the  railroad  business,  to  a  greater 
extent  than  that  of  any  other  corporation,  invites  litiga- 
tion. There  are  those  who  regard  the  railroad  as  fair 
game  and  do  not  hesitate  or  scruple  to  attempt  to  raid 
the  company's  strong  box  on  the  slightest  provocation. 


SUPERVISION  21 

The  railroad  property  is  spread  out  over  a  vast  territory 
and  many  of  its  employees  are  isolated  and  not  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  its  officers.  It  performs  mil- 
lions of  individual  acts  in  transporting  persons  and 
property,  with  a  possible  lawsuit  in  any  one  of  them. 

Claims  for  injuries  to  employees,  when  not  adjusted 
otherwise,  often  entail  long  and  expensive  litigation, 
with  a  possibility  of  a  large  verdict  for  damages. 

Claims  for  loss  and  damage  to  goods  on  some  roads 
have  cost  as  much  as  two  and  one-half  per  cent  of  the 
gross  freight  earnings.  The  loss  to  passengers'  baggage, 
while  generally  small,  often  causes  vexatious  lawsuits. 
On  all  roads,  in  spite  of  fencing  and  track  policing, 
the  suits  for  injury  to  live  stock  still  persist;  fire  from 
the  sparks  of  locomotives  may  burn  up  a  field,  damage 
an  orchard,  or  destroy  a  town;  the  construction  of  a 
railroad  embankment  across  a  creek  bottom  may  be 
assigned  as  the  cause  of  an  overflow  inundating  a  con- 
siderable area  of  high-priced  bottom  land;  the  wages 
of  employees  are  occasionally  garnisheed — these  and 
many  other  things  may  be  relied  upon  to  keep  the 
attorneys  and  their  assistants  busy. 

In  the  prosecution  of  offenders  against,  or  trespassers 
on,  the  property  of  the  company,  care  must  be  taken 
to  avoid  suit  for  malicious  prosecution.  The  condemna- 
tion of  land  for  right-of-way  purposes  during  periods 
of  construction,  extension,  and  improvement  involves 
extensive  and  always  costly  litigation. 

Not  infrequently,  even  when  such  matters  as  those 
just  mentioned  are  not  brought  into  court,  the  legal 
department  is  called  upon  to  adjust  the  claim,  which  may 
involve  as  much  work  as  the  lawsuit  itself. 

As  typical  of  the  organization  of  the  legal  depart- 
ment of  the  larger  systems,  that  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Fe  Railway  (9,200  miles)  has  been  selected  and 
is  indicated  by  Figure  1. 


22      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


L  JL  A 


(r£N[f)AL  SouCrrOP 


OtNL.  SOLICtroP. 


GeNL.  ATTOPN£y. 


Claim  Aoefrr. 


AiST.  CrusaAL. 
Claim  fi&enr. 


Claim  AeenT 
cu 


Fig.  1. — Organization  of  tlie  Legal  Department,  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa 

Fe  Rvstem' 


In  this  organization  the  general  solicitor  is  the  chief 
of  the  division.  His  immediate  subordinate  is  the 
assistant  general  solicitor.  The  title  of  general  attorney 
comes  next  in  line.  These  officials  have  rejDorting  to 
them  assistant  solicitors  and  assistant  attorneys.  All 
of  them  have  lawyers  as  assistants  in  their  offices  in 
addition  to  the  office  clerical  forces. 

The  district  or  state  solicitors  report  generally  to 
these  officers,  and  the  local  attorneys  report  througlj 
the  district  or  state  solicitors. 

Where  the  claim  department  is  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  legal  department  as  in  this  instance,  there 
is  usually  a  general  claims  attorney  or  agent  with 
various  assistants  and  claim  adjusters  reporting  to  this 
division  of  the  department. 

It  is  impracticable  for  the  general  counsel  and  his 
assistants  in  the  general  office  to  be  familiar  with  the 


« 


SUPERVISION  23 

local  laws  and  conditions.  Usually  there  is  a  company 
attorney  in  each  of  the  counties  traversed  by  its  line, 
with  a  district  or  state  solicitor  to  exercise  supervision 
over  all  the  local  attorneys  in  his  district  or  state. 

It  is  to  be  understood  that  the  organization  of  the 
legal  department  as  to  the  number  of  its  employees 
varies  approximately  according  to  the  mileage  of  the 
system.  An  exceptionally  small  line,  as  a  logging  road, 
tap  line,  or  the  like,  may  have  no  permanent  legal 
department  in  its  staff  organization,  simply  paying 
retainers  to  the  most  competent  counsel  it  can  secure 
to  act  for  it  as  occasion  demands. 


CHAPTER  III 

ENGINEERING 

The  subjects  generally  discussed  in  this  chapter  are 
matters  coming  under  the  direction  of  the  chief  engineer, 
who  is  in  all  cases  a  civil  engineer.  This  division  embraces 
not  only  civil  engineering  work,  but  also  that  usually 
coming  under  direct  supervision  of  an  electrical  engineer, 
who  reports  to  the  chief  engineer.  There  is  a  sharp  dis- 
tinction, however,  between  the  term  engineering  as 
here  used  and  mechanical  engineering,  which  relates  to 
the  design,  construction,  and  maintenance  of  motive 
power  and  rolling  stock,  and  which  is  discussed  later. 

The  work  of  the  engineering  department  may  be 
divided  into  two  distinct  parts,  construction  and  main- 
tenance of  way.  On  a  road  having  one  or  more  sections 
of  its  line  electrified  there  are  separate  divisions  for 
electrical  construction  and  maintenance  in  the  electrical 
zone. 

Construction 

The  chief  engineer  is  responsible  for  the  construction 
of  the  railroad.  The  location  of  its  line  involves  a  great 
deal  of  detailed  field  examination  and  office  study  and 
analysis  on  his  part.  Prior  to  the  beginning  of  con- 
struction, standard  plans  for  roadbed  sections,  track, 
bridges,  culverts,  buildings,  and  the  numerous  struc- 
tures of  a  railroad  are  prepared,  as  well  as  plans  for 
structures   and  situations   requiring  special  treatment. 

24 


ENGINEERING  25 

Plats  showing  accurately  the  dimensions  and  areas  of 
all  land  required  for  right-of-way,  station,  or  terminal 
purposes  are  made,  so  that  all  such  land  may  be  defi- 
nitely described  in  deeds  transferring  it  to  the  com- 
pany. 

Specifications  for  the  construction  of  the  railroad 
are  prepared  describing  in  detail  the  character  of  the 
various  classes  of  work  to  be  done  and  prescribing  the 
manner  of  doing  it.  Proposals  to  do  the  work  are 
invited  from  contractors  and  when  received  are  tabu- 
lated and  compared  and  the  contract  is  awarded  on  the 
basis  of  the  proposal  which  is  the  most  advantageous. 
The  contractor  then  assembles  his  forces  and  plant  and 
actual  construction  begins. 

The  right  of  way  and  real  estate  are  acquired  as  far 
in  advance  of  actual  construction  as  conditions  will 
allow.  It  is  rarely  all  obtained  before  construction 
begins,  and  its  acquirement  is  often  a  source  of  serious 
delay  to  the  construction  forces.  The  work  is  generally 
performed  by  men  trained  through  former  service  in 
that  particular  field.  In  cases  of  lines  constructed  in  a 
country  without  transportation  facilities,  securing  the 
necessary  land  is  a  comparatively  easy  matter;  in  a 
district  already  provided  with  railroad  facilities,  it  is 
often  a  tedious,  expensive,  and  vexatious  feature  of  the 
construction,  involving  much  negotiation  and  at  times 
condemnation  proceedings.  The  right-of-way  men  gen- 
erally report  to  the  chief  engineer,  but  often  to  the 
general  counsel. 

The  work  is  divided  for  construction  purposes  into 
sections  varying  in  length  as  to  the  character  of  the 
construction.  On  light  work — that  is,  where  the  country 
is  comparatively  flat  with  no  important  bridges  or  other 
stiTictures  and  construction — a  section  may  be  from  ten 
to  fifteen  miles  long  as  a  maximum;  on  heavy  work, 
involving  the  moving  of  large  cjuantities  of  material, 


26       RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  sections  are  reduced  to  six  or  eight  miles,  and  with 
nuicli  bridge  or  special  work  they  are  still  shorter. 

These  sections  are  called  "residencies"  and  are  in 
direct  charge  of  a  resident  engineer,  who  with  his  party 
directs  the  construction  in  accordance  with  the  plans, 
specifications,  and  instructions  of  the  chief  engineer. 
The  party  consists  generally  of  three  men  in  addition 
to  the  resident  engineer  and  such  inspectors  of  masonry, 
pile,  and  timber  structures  as  the  nature  of  the  work 
may  require. 

The  resident  engineer  sets  stakes  marking  the  outside 
lines  of  all  cuts  and  fills  and  in  doing  so  cross-sections 
the  surface  of  the  ground  to  determine  the  quantities 
of  material  to  be  moved;  he  defines  the  lines  of  all 
masonry,  timber,  and  other  structures  and  sets  stakes 
to  mark  the  limits  of  the  company's  right  of  way  and 
real  estate. 

During  the  construction  of  the  work  the  character  of 
material  excavated  is  carefully  noted  for  the  purposes 
of  classifying  it,  as  the  unit  price  paid  for  the  material 
depends  on  whether  it  is  earth,  loose  rock,  or  solid 
rock.  Foundations  for  all  structures  are  carefully 
examined  before  building;  all  material,  such  as  sand, 
stone,  cement,  piles,  timber,  pipe,  etc.,  is  inspected  before 
being  used. 

As  the  contractors  are  paid  monthly,  the  resident 
engineer  makes  an  estimate  of  the  amount  of  work 
done  at  the  end  of  each  month,  which  is  sent  to  the 
ofiice  of  the  chief  engineer  as  the  basis  of  the  payment. 

On  almost  any  line  of  railroad  there  are  one  or  more 
important  bridges  which  are  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  bridge  engineer,  who  usually  reports 
directly  to  the  chief  engineer. 

In  a  rough  or  mountainous  district  involving  the  con- 
struction  of  long  tunnels,   such  work   is   generally   in 


ENGINEERING  27 

charge  of  a  resident  engineer  familiar  with  underground 
construction. 

The  office  engineer  supervises  the  drafting  of  all  maps 
and  plans,  checks  the  monthly  and  final  estimates,  and 
indexes  and  files  all  estimates,  reports,  and  notes  as 
they  are  completed  in  the  field. 

As  the  roadbed  is  finished  ready  for  the  track,  the 
superintendent  of  track  begins  the  actual  laying  of  the 
rails,  which  is  usually  done  with  the  railroad  company's 
own  forces.  Prior  to  the  track  laying,  the  rails,  ties, 
joints,  spikes,  switches,  etc.,  have  been  received  and 
stored  in  a  material  yard,  convenient  to  the  point  of 
beginning  of  the  track  laying.  Where  steel  bridges 
are  to  be  erected,  the  masonry  is  constructed  at  the 
same  time  as  the  rest  of  the  work,  but  the  steel  super- 
structure is  not  erected  until  the  track  has  been  laid 
to  the  bridge  site.  The  material  for  bridge  superstruc- 
ture is  stored  in  the  same  yard  as  the  track  material  and 
is  moved  to  the  bridge  site  by  the  construction  trains  of 
the  track  force. 

All  this  track,  bridge,  and  other  building  material  is 
received  at  the  material  yard  and  checked  out  to  the 
track  forces  by  the  material  clerks,  who  account  for 
all  of  it  to  the  superintendent  of  track,  who  in  turn 
reports  to  the  chief  engineer. 

As  track  laying  progresses,  the  construction  of  sta- 
tions, telegraph  lines,  water  tanks,  and  other  necessary 
buildings  and  structures  and  retaining  fences  begins, 
following  the  track  construction  as  closely  as  possible, 
the  material  for  such  structures  being  hauled  by  con- 
struction trains  from  the  material  yard  to  the  sites  of 
the  structures.  As  the  track  is  surfaced — that  is, 
brought  to  true  line  and  proper  grade  for  actual  oper- 
ation— the  road  crossings,  cattle  guards,  and  such  struc- 
tures are  placed,  so  that  by  the  time  track  laying  and 


28      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

surfacing  are  completed  the  line  is  ready  for  actual 
operation  and  is  turned  over  to  the  operating  depart- 
ment. 

Reconstruction 

The  reconstruction  of  a  railroad  is  often  undertaken 
primarily  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  controlling 
grades  and  improving  the  alignment  (eliminating 
curves),  but  there  are  some  other  very  important  mat- 
ters given  consideration  at  the  time  of  such  reconstruc- 
tion. 

The  original  roads  of  the  country  were  from  economi- 
cal necessity  constructed  as  cheaply  as  possible.  Where 
the  business  of  a  road  continually  increases  there  comes 
a  time  when  more  money  can  be  saved  in  operating 
expense  by  making  certain  improvements  than  the 
interest  on  the  cost  of  such  improvements.  Under  such 
circumstances  if  the  money  market  is  normal  and  the 
credit  of  the  company  good,  such  improvements  are 
undertaken,  and  the  chief  engineer  through  his  con- 
struction organization  determines  the  most  feasible  and 
economical  plan  for  reconstructing  those  portions  of 
the  line  where  the  conditions  surrounding  the  opera- 
tions demand  it. 

On  all  railroads  there  are  grades  called  maximum  or 
controlling  grades,  which  limit  the  tonnage  that  any 
given  locomotive  can  haul  over  a  division.  These  grades 
usually  occur  where  the  railroad  crosses  ridges  or 
mountains  in  passing  from  one  system  of  drainage  into 
another.  By  reducing  the  grade — that  is,  the  rate  of 
rise  (as  from  1  foot  in  100  feet  to  0.5  feet  in  100  feet), 
the  tonnage  of  the  train  may  be  increased.  Such  grade 
reduction  generally  increases  the  depth  of  the  excava- 
tions near  and  at  the  summit  of  the  grade,  and  the  height 
of  the  embankments  in  the  valley,  as  well  as  the  length 
of  the  "fill." 


ENGINEERING  29 

This  usually  necessitates  the  abandonment  of  some 
portions  of  the  old  roadbed,  particularly  if  the  reduc- 
tion in  grade  is  radical,  and  the  location  of  an  entirely 
new  line.  If  the  abandonment  of  the  old  line  is  not 
necessary,  the  grade  change  often  requires  that  tem- 
porary tracks  be  built  along  those  portions  under  recon- 
struction, to  carry  the  traffic  during  the  time  the  old 
roadbed  is  being  altered  (raised  or  lowered)  to  the 
newly   established   grade   line. 

The  determination  of  the  best  plan  and  method  to 
be  employed  in  such  reconstruction  requires  a  great  deal 
of  detailed  field  examination  and  office  study  of  the  data 
so  obtained.  There  are  many  possible  ways  in  which 
any  given  line  may  be  reconstructed  to  certain  standards 
of  grade  and  alig-nment  but  there  is  always  one  best 
way — that  is,  some  plan  which  accomplishes  the  things 
sought  with  the  expenditure  of  the  least  money,  and  the 
engineer  is  charged  with  finding  and  being  able  to 
demonstrate  that  some  particular  plan  is  this  one  best 
way. 

In  order  to  do  this,  all  reasonably  possible  schemes 
will.be  tested  and  a  statement  of  cost  and  resulting 
operating  conditions  for  each  of  them  will  be  made 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  This  involves  the  making 
of  surveys  developing  all  the  topographical  features  of 
the  country  and  the  drawing  of  maps  and  profiles  from 
the  data  gathered,  which  must  show  accurately  all  the 
conditions  affecting  the  construction  and  operation  of 
all  the  proposed  lines,  from  which  an  estimate  of  cost 
is  made.  Such  examination  and  study  will  ^how  decis- 
ively the  line  best  suited  to  the  conditions  from  an 
economical  standpoint. 

What  has  just  been  said  relates  only  to  certain  por- 
tions of  the  railroad,  as  much  of  the  old  roadbed  may 
be  used  on  those  portions  where  the  original  grades 
or  curves  are  not  in  excess  of  the  proposed  new  grades 


30      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

(ratos  of  grade)  and  curves.  What  follows  applies  to 
all  of  the  railroad  that  is  to  be  reconstructed. 

At  the  time  of  reconstruction  it  is  usual  to  widen 
the  excavations  and  embankments  so  that  none  of  the 
ballast  will  be  lost  and  to  secure  better  drainage  in 
the  cuts.  Often  the  width  at  the  bottom  of  earth  cuts 
in  the  original  roadbed  did  not  exceed  sixteen  feet  and 
this  is  widened  to  about  twenty-six  feet  and  the  slopes 
are  flattened;  the  embankments  originally  built  fourteen 
to  sixteen  feet  in  width  are  widened  to  twenty  or  twenty- 
two  feet. 

INIost  of  the  bridges  and  many  of  the  culverts  in  the 
original  construction  are  of  a  temporary  character,  being 
made  of  timber;  these  are  rebuilt  entirely,  with  the  sub- 
stitution of  permanent  steel  and  masonry  or  reinforced 
concrete  structures  for  the  original  temporary  bridges 
and  cast-iron  or  reinforced  concrete  pipe  for  the  timber 
culverts  and  tile  pipes  of  the  original  line.  The  original 
steel  bridges  also  are  replaced  by  new  ones  of  much 
heavier  construction  capable  of  carrying  larger  and 
heavier  locomotives  and  cars. 

The  lighter  rail  and  track  structure  is  replaced  with 
a  heavier  rail  and  the  ties  protected  from  mechanical 
wear  by  tie  plates,  the  ties  themselves  in  many  instances 
being  treated  chemically  to  prolong  their  life  by  resist- 
ing decay.  Stone  or  gravel  ballast  replaces  the  earth 
or  cinder  ballast  of  the  original  line.  Sidings  at  sta- 
tions are  lengthened  and  perhaps  increased  in  number 
to  provide  for  increased  and  prospective  business. 
Passing  tracks  are  built  at  shorter  intervals  along  the 
road,  and  they  too  must  be  lengthened  on  account  of 
lengthened  trains,  which  the  reconstruction  makes  pos- 
sible. 

Yards  at  terminal  and  junction  points  are  extended 
and  reconstructed  to  care  for  the  increased  business  and 


ENGINEERING  31 

designed  to  facilitate  switching  operations,  thereby 
reducing  cost. 

The  passenger  and  freight  stations  originally  of  tem- 
porary frame  construction  are  in  many  cases  replaced 
with  permanent  buildings,  having  heating  systems,  gas 
or  electric  light,  and  modern  plumbing  installed.  The 
larger  locomotives  require  that  engine-houses,  machine 
shops,  turntables,  and  often  water  and  fuel  stations 
be  extended,  enlarged,  or  wholly  reconstructed. 

With  the  increase  in  traffic  the  danger  at  highway 
grade  crossings  has  increased  much  faster  than  the 
traffic.  Many  such  crossings  must  be  provided  with  over- 
head bridges  or  masonry  underpasses  constnicted  to 
afford  reasonable  safety  for  highway  travelers.  For  the 
same  reason  and  for  the  added  purpose  of  avoiding  the 
delay  to  trains,  many  grade  crossings  with  their  rail- 
roads must  be  abolished,  and  this  usually  entails  the 
reconstruction  of  all  roads  using  the  crossings  for  some 
distance  on  either  side. 

The  safety  of  operation  with  dense  traffic  often 
requires  the  construction  of  a  signal  system  to  avoid 
undue  delays  to  trains  and  to  insure  their  safety. 

Track  Elevation 

In  many  of  the  larger  cities  and  some  of  the  smaller 
ones,  the  delays  and  danger  resulting  from  the  density 
of  traffic  on  the  railroads  and  of  team  traffic  in  the 
streets  require  the  elevation  of  all  railroad  tracks 
within  congested  districts.  Such  elevation  rcMjuires  the 
building  of  comparatively  high  embankments,  the  con- 
struction of  heavy  masonry  walls  of  stone  or  concrete 
to  retain  them  within  the  railroad  right  of  way,  and 
the  erecting  of  steel  bridges  with  masonry  abutments 
over  the  streets  and  alleys  crossed. 


32      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  grade  of  the  street  is  usually  lowered  in  order 
to  provide  ''head  room"  for  team  traffic  beneath  the 
bridge  without  making  the  height  of  embankments 
excessive.  This  altering  of  the  grade  of  the  structure 
often  necessitates  the  rearrangement  of  sewers,  gas 
and  water  pipe,  conduits  for  electrical  and  other  wires, 
and  all  other  subsurface  structures  because  of  the  exca- 
vation of  the  street  beneath  the  railroad  structures  and 
the  street  approaches  thereto.  This  regrading  neces- 
sitates the  removal  of  the  street  pavements  and  walks 
and  their  replacement  after  all  the  subsurface  work 
has  been  performed. 

Additional.  Main  Tracks 

As  traffic  increases  still  further,  additional  tracks  are 
required,  which  involves  much  new  construction.  (In 
some  instances  the  road  is  double-tracked  when  it  is 
reconstructed.) 

The  excavations  and  embankments  must  be  widened 
to  provide  room  for  the  additional  track.  The  widened 
embankments  require  the  lengthening  of  all  culverts, 
pipes,  and  drains.  The  widened  excavations  demand  the 
lengthening  of  all  overhead  bridges  and  the  recon- 
struction of  the  road  approaches  thereto.  The  abut- 
ments and  piers  must  be  extended  and  additional  bridge 
spans  erected  on  them. 

Passing  tracks  and  sidings  are  rearranged  and  the 
additional  track  itself  must  be  constmcted.  Many 
buildings  on  the  right  of  way,  particularly  station 
buildings,  are  moved  or  often  reconstructed.  Road 
crossings  and  many  other  minor  structures  have  to  be 
adjusted  to  the  new  construction. 

Double-tracking  a  line  under  traffic,  particularly  if 
the  cuttings  are  deep  or  are  in  rock  and  the  embank- 
ments high,  requires  careful  planning  and  skillful  man- 


ENGINEERING  33 

agement  of  the  construction  forces  to  avoid  serious 
interruption  of  the  operation  of  trains.  Often  embank- 
ments are  raised  or  cuts  deepened  at  this  time,  which 
necessitates  the  shifting  of  the  traffic  to  temporary 
tracks  several  times  during  the  construction. 

Terminals  and  Yards 

The  growing  traffic  of  a  road  demands  the  rearrange- 
ment— often  the  reconstruction — of  terminals  and  yards 
at  important  connections.  The  construction  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Terminal  in  New  York  cost  over  one  hun- 
dred million  dollars;  the  reconstruction  of  the  New 
York  Central  Passenger  Terminal  at  the  same  place, 
eighty  million  dollars ;  the  construction  of  the  new  Chi- 
cago and  Northwestern  Railway  Passenger  Terminal  at 
Chicago,  thirty  million  dollars;  the  reconstruction  of 
the  Joint  Terminal  by  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St. 
Paul  Railroads  in  Chicago  is  estimated  to  cost  sixty-five 
million  dollars ;  and  the  building  of  the  New  Terminal  at 
Kansas  City,  fifty  million  dollars. 

All  such  work  involves  not  only  the  construction  of 
the  facilities  of  the  railroads  themselves  but  the  adjust- 
ment of  surrounding  conditions  to  them.  The  Chicago 
terminal  work,  just  referred  to,  involves  the  building 
of  a  bridge  across  the  Chicago  River,  the  reconstruction 
of  streets  adjoining  and  crossing  the  terminal  properties, 
and  much  other  work  of  a  complicated  and  special  nature. 

Often  large  storage,  interchange,  classification,  or 
clearing  yards  must  be  built,  enlarged,  or  rearranged  to 
accommodate  increased  or  changed  conditions  of  freight 
traffic  at  some  terminal  or  important  connecting  point. 
A  notable  instance  of  this  is  the  construction  of  the  very 
large  yards  at  Clearing  in  Chicago,  built  to  reduce  the 
number  of  cars  heretofore  hauled  into  the  citv  terminals 


3i      KAILWAY  OKGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

and  to  facilitate  tlic  interchange  of  cars  between  the  rail- 
road companies  operating  it. 


Industrial  and  Spur  Tracks 

The  location  of  new  industries  along  the  road  nec- 
essitates the  construction  of  tracks  connecting  the 
plants  of  such  industries  with  the  tracks  of  the  railroad. 
Such  construction  may  be  anything  from  a  single  short 
track  to  a  complicated  system  of  trackage  or  a  spur  of 
considerable  length  with  many  sidings. 

These  tracks  must  be  adjusted  to  the  tipples  or  other 
dumping  or  elevating  facilities  of  the  industries  and  to 
the  various  requirements  of  the  plants  served. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ENGINEERING— Contiiiaed 

Design  of  Work 
All  the  matters  mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter 
under  Construction,  Reconstruction,  Track  Elevation, 
Additional  Main  Tracks,  Terminals  and  Yards,  and 
Industrial  and  Spur  Tracks,  involve  the  making  of 
detailed  surveys  and  many  maps,  profiles,  and  estimates, 
and  much  general  and  specialized  study  of  the  data  when 
so  prepared  before  the  best  design  for  the  work  may  be 
shown  on  the  plans  and  the  best  method  of  performing 
it  incorporated  in  the  specifications  for  the  work. 

Engineer  of  Construction 

The  organization  by  which  this  is  effected  is  under 
the  supervision  of  the  engineer  of  construction,  who 
reports  to  the  chief  engineer.  His  title  may  be  the  one 
just  given  or  assistant  chief  engineer,  constructing 
engineer,  or  chief  engineer  of  constniction.  His  duties 
are  the  general  supervision  of  all  such  construction  work 
as  has  been  mentioned,  and  he  is  responsible  for  the 
whole  organization  having  charge  of  such  work. 

Locating  Engineer 

The  locating  engineer  has  charge  of  surveys  for  new 
lines  and  reconstruction  projects.  The  work  involves 
the  gathering  of  the  data  in  regard  to  the  topography 
of  the  country  traversed  and  other  facts  having  a 
bearing  on  the  construction  or  operation  of  the  line. 

35 


36      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

He  is  the  engineer  charged  with  the  ** trying  out"  of 
various  possible  routes  for  the  location  of  the  line, 
mapping  them,  estimating  their  cost,  and  comparing 
such  cost  and  the  operating  conditions  on  each  possible 
route  with  those  of  all  other  possible  routes.  He  tabu- 
lates the  results  of  all  his  investigations  and  embodies 
them  in  a  report  to  the  chief  engineer. 

The  making  of  the  surveys  mentioned  involves  the 
employment  of  one  or  more  locating  parties  composed 
of  from  twenty  to  thirty  men,  depending  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  district  under  investigation.  Each  party 
is  under  the  direct  supervision  or  in  charge  of  an 
engineer  generally  called  engineer  in  charge  of  party, 
wdio  directs  the  movements  of  the  party  in  securing 
the  information  required  by  the  locating  engineer. 

The  transitman  has  charge  of  a  group  of  chainmen, 
stakemen,  axmen,  and  flagmen,  who  mark  the  line  on  the 
ground  with  stakes  driven  at  stated  intervals  (usually 
every  hundred  feet).  He  records  in  his  notebook  all  his 
field  observations,  particularly  the  angles  turned  in 
running  the  line. 

The  levelman  and  his  rodman  take  the  elevation  of 
the  ground  along  the  line  and  make  a  profile  of  it.  The 
topographer  measures  the  distances  from  the  line  to  all 
natural  objects  and  takes  the  slope  of  the  ground  on 
both  sides  of  the  line.  The  draftsman,  from  the  field 
notes  of  the  transitman,  levelman,  and  topographer, 
makes  a  map  showing  the  position  of  all  objects,  build- 
ings, fences,  streams,  roads,  and  the  contours  of  the 
ground,  showing  differences  of  elevation. 

On  this  map  the  locating  engineer  projects  various 
locations  which  are  marked  on  the  ground  by  stakes, 
and  the  costs  of  the  various  lines  are  then  estimated 
for  the  purpose  of  comparison.  The  line  finally  adopted 
is  indicated  by  stakes  driven  at  intervals  of  one  hundred 
feet  on   straight  line  and  fifty  feet   on   curves,   which 


ENGINEERING  37 

line  with  the  maps  and  profiles  is  the  basis  for  all 
future  work  of  obtaining  right  of  way  and  actually  con- 
structing the  line. 

The  decision  as  to  the  line  to  be  adopted  rests  of 
course  with  the  chief  engineer,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  president  and  board  of  directors.  A  matter  so 
important  as  the  location  of  the  line  receives  much  of 
the  personal  attention  of  tlie  responsible  head  of  the 
engineering  department.  On  some  of  the  larger  roads, 
the  locating  engineer  devotes  his  entire  time  to  that 
one  subject,  but  often  after  locating  the  line  he  is  placed 
in  direct  charge  of  the  construction. 

Construction  Organization 

The  line  to  be  constructed  is  divided  into  sections 
called  ''residencies"  as  explained  in  the  chapter  on 
Construction  of  New  Lines,  whether  the  line  is  being 
newly  built  or  reconstructed,  as  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed is  similar  in  either  case  so  far  as  the  engineer- 
ing organization  is  concerned.  Several  resident 
engineers  report  to  a  division  engineer,  who  in  turn 
reports  to  the  construction  engineer. 

There  are  certain  classes  of  construction  found  on  all 
railroads  which  require  special  treatment  in  their  design 
and  method  of  construction.  These  different  classes  of 
work  are  placed  under  the  immediate  supervision  of 
specialists,  expert  in  their  particular  fields. 

Bridge  Engineer 

The  bridge  engineer  is  responsible  for  the  design  and 
has  supervision  of  the  fabrication  and  erection  of 
bridges.  There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  work  in 
bridge  construction,  the  piers  and  abutments  usually 
constructed  of  masonry  and  the  steel  SMperstructure 
which  is  erected  upon  it. 


1239  4 1, 


38      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  building  of  the  masonry  often  involves  the  con- 
struction of  difficult  foundation  work,  and  for  that 
reason  certain  engineers  and  contractors  specialize  in 
that  class  of  work  alone.  The  foundations  of  the  Eads 
Bridge  over  the  Mississippi  River  at  St.  Louis,  the  New 
York  and  Brooklyn  Bridges  over  the  East  River,  and 
the  St.  Lawrence  bridge  in  Canada  are  examples  of 
difficult  foundations,  either  on  account  of  the  size  of 
the  masonry  structures  or  because  of  the  character  of 
the  material  excavated  to  reach  suitable  foundation  on 
underlying  rock  strata. 

The  sinking  of  caissons  for  bridge  foundations  in  the 
beds  of  large  rivers  involves  the  use  of  a  very  extensive 
equipment  consisting  of  a  steam  power  plant,  pumps, 
compressors,  pile  drivers,  derricks,  and  many  other 
appliances  of  a  like  nature,  installed  on  barges  and 
scows,  together  with  tugs  or  boats  to  shift  the  plant  and 
transport  the  construction  material  to  the  site  of  the 
work.  The  largest  bridges  in  the  country  have  been 
constructed  under  the  supervision  of  consulting  engi- 
neers and  contractors  confining  themselves  to  such  work 
alone.  There  are  many  bridges,  however,  on  all  the 
large  systems  of  railroad  which  involve  foundation  work 
of  the  character  described,  which  are  constructed  by  the 
bridge  engineer  of  the  railroad  organization. 

On  account  of  the  very  serious  results  that  inevitably 
follow  bridge  failures,  in  loss  of  life  and  property,  it  is 
most  essential  that  all  material  entering  into  their  con- 
struction should  be  rigidly  inspected  and  carefully  tested. 
Such  work  is  attended  to  by  one  or  more  engineers — usu- 
ally called  engineers  of  tests — as  to  certain  qualities  and 
by  the  careful  analysis  of  their  constituent  elements  by 
an  analytical  chemist.  All  this  inspection,  whether  car- 
ried on  at  the  steel  mill  or  at  the  bridge  site,  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  responsible  bridge  engineer. 

The  work  of  this  division  of  the  engineering  depart- 


ENGINEERING  39 

ment  is  outlined  in  a  very  general  way  only  to  show  the 
nature  of  the  duties  of  those  engaged  therein.  It  is 
apparent  from  the  description  that  a  large  force  of 
designers,  draftsmen,  computers,  checkers,  and  clerks 
must  be  employed  in  the  office  and  that  superintendents, 
foremen,  and  many  inspectors  of  power  plants,  masonry, 
concrete,  pile,  false  work,  bridge  erection,  and  painting 
must  be  employed  in  the  actual  construction  of  the  work. 
The  work  of  this  division  is  perhaps  more  technical  in 
its  nature  than  that  of  any  other  railroad  department 
and  practically  all  its  employees  are  technically  edu- 
cated or  specially  trained  men. 

Designing  Engineers 

There  are  many  different  classes  of  structures  which 
are  appurtenant  to  railroad  property  and  essential  to  its 
operation.  Many  of  its  structures  require  special  treat- 
ment in  design  and  construction;  others  are  repeated 
many  times  on  different  parts  of  the  road.  The  first 
require  special  plans  and  specifications;  the  second  are 
constructed  according  to  standard  plans  adapted  to  local 
conditions.  The  engineers  charged  with  responsibility 
in  regard  to  the  character  and  the  adaptability  of  the 
structures  to  be  built  to  the  service  required  are  called 
designing  engineers. 

There  are  usually  some  special  fields  covered  by  par- 
ticular men,  but  the  general  duties  are  the  same  in  all 
cases — that  is,  they  embody  the  ideas  of  the  chief  engi- 
neer as  to  construction  standards  in  the  plans  and  speci- 
fications, or  (when  directed)  suggest  and  submit  several 
plans  for  a  given  structure  or  class  of  structures  for  his 
consideration.  The  classes  of  structures  cover  a  wide 
range. 

The  section  of  the  roadbed  varies  with  the  character  of 
the  traffic  and  the  material   in  which   excavations   are 


40      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

made  or  from  which  embankments  are  built.  Drawings 
showing  the  sections  for  these  varying  conditions  are 
made,  giving  the  width  of  tlie  roadbed  and  the  rate  of 
slope  of  the  material  for  lines  with  various  conditions 
as  to  traffic,  as  main  line  or  brancli  line,  and  for  various 
materials,  earth,  solid  rock,  etc. 

The  track  section  also  varies  with  the  character  of  the 
trains  and  train  service.  For  lines  having  heavy  equip- 
ment the  rails  are  of  larger  section,  the  ties  usually  being 
spaced  at  shorter  intervals  than  for  a  line  with  light 
traffic.  If  the  ballast  used  is  crushed  stone,  its  depth, 
width,  and  slope  are  different  from  those  adopted  for 
gravel,  chatt,  or  cinder  ballast.  If  the  ties  available  for 
use  are  of  soft  wood,  the  plan  requires  the  use  of  tie 
plates;  if  good  hard  oak  ties  may  be  had  at  reasonable 
cost,  the  tie  plates  may  be  omitted.  The  plans  show  a 
track  section  for  each  of  the  varying  conditions  met  on 
the  road. 

The  angles  of  the  turnouts  for  which  switches  are 
required  vary,  and  in  consequence  the  lengths  of  the 
switches  vary.  The  switch  standards  show  a  list  of  all 
fixtures  and  the  number  and  dimensions  of  switch  ties 
for  each  different  switch  angle.  They  also  show  the 
dimensions  of  the  switch  stand  and  state  in  what  circum- 
stances a  high,  low,  or  ground  throw  stand  shall  be 
employed  for  throwing  the  switch  rails. 

A  special  plan  for  the  sidings  and  passing  tracks 
at  each  station  and  the  large  yards  at  terminal  and 
important  connecting  points  must  show  in  detail  each 
track  and  switch  and  every  feature  relating  to  its  con- 
struction and  operation.  The  yard  may  be  a  clearing 
yard  at  an  important  industrial  center  or  terminal,  a 
"hump  yard"  for  sorting  cars  by  gravity,  a  classi- 
fication yard  for  breaking  up  or  assembling  trains,  a 
storage  yard  for  holding  surplus  cars,  or  a  combination 
of  all  or  a  part  of  them. 


ENGINEERING  41 

In  a  rugged  country  involving  tunnel  construction  the 
section  and  character  of  the  tunnel  varies  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  material  encountered  in  its  excavation.  It 
may  be  in  rock  of  so  durable  a  nature  that  no  lining  is 
required ;  in  some  instances  where  lining  is  required  it  is 
lined  with  timber;  in  others  with  plain  concrete,  stone, 
or  brick  masonry;  in  still  others  with  concrete  heavily 
reinforced  with  steel  rods  or  shapes.  The  plan  shows 
all  the  dimensions  of  the  completed  tunnel  section  and 
the  method  of  drainage  and  ventilation  if  any  are 
required. 

Standard  plans  showing  the  construction  of  overhead 
or  underpass  bridge  crossings  for  public  or  private  road- 
ways must  be  prepared.  In  some  cases  these  are  of  steel 
girders  on  masonry  piers,  in  others  of  reinforced  con- 
crete or  structures  of  piles  and'  timber  only. 

The  station  buildings  are  of  several  classes  to  suit 
the  varying  needs  of  the  road.  They  may  be  immense 
structures  of  steel  and  masonry  in  important  cities  or 
very  plain  frame  structures  serving  small  country  vil- 
lages. There  are  several  types  and  sizes  of  stations,  say 
four  or  five,  which  may  be  adapted  to  nearly  all  the 
stations,  and  these  four  or  five  types  are  the  standard 
plans  for  stations,  each  station  being  classified  in  refer- 
ence to  these  types — first  class,  fifth  class,  etc.  Special 
plans  are  made  for  the  larger  stations  and  for  special 
situations,  these  very  often  being  designed  by  an  outside 
architect  or  by  one  in  the  service  of  the  company  devot- 
ing his  entire  time  to  such  duties.  There  are  special 
plans  usually  for  each  station  constructed,  showing  the 
arrangement  of  water,  gas,  and  sewer  pipes  and  elec- 
trical wiring,  if  any. 

The  construction  of  docks  and  wharves  demands 
special  designing  to  meet  the  conditions  prevailing  at 
the  site  and  of  the  operation  itself.     Fuel  and   water 


42      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

stations  are  constructed  from  standard  plans  adapted 
to  varying  local  or  operating  conditions. 

Engine-bouses  are  designed  in  connection  with  the 
officers  of  the  mechanical  department,  the  latter  attend- 
ing to  the  installation  of  the  plant,  consisting  of  boilers, 
engines,  various  tools,  and  the  system  of  piping  air, 
steam,  and  water  to  the  various  engine  pits.  Machine 
shops,  often  of  very  considerable  extent,  require  special 
plans.  The  space  for  each  tool  and  machine  is  shown  on 
the  plans,  and  the  foundations  for  such  plans  are  made 
in  cooperation  with  the  mechanical  department,  as  well 
as  standard  plans  for  turntables,  cinder  pits,  and  other 
minor  structures  appurtenant  to  engine  operations. 

The  minor  structures  must  all  be  built  to  certain  stand- 
ards and  plans  showing  all  dimensions  and  forms  in  great 
detail — the  number,  spacing,  and  kind  of  wires  and  the 
spacing  of  posts  in  right-of-way  fences,  the  number  and 
length  of  the  planks  in  grade  road  crossings,  the  detailed 
construction  of  cattle  guards,  the  dimensions  and  shape 
of  all  signs  and  the  distance  at  which  they  must  be 
located  from  the  rails,  the  spacing  of  posts  and  planl?:s  in 
snow  and  sand  fences,  and  the  detailed  construction  of 
snow  sheds,  cattle  pens,  track  scales,  and  all  other  struc- 
tures. 

It  is  attention  to  these  details  which  in  many  instances 
seem  trivial,  and  in  others  quite  the  reverse,  that  engages 
the  designing  engineer.  All  railroads  are  composed  of 
units  which  were  originally  constructed  under  widely 
varying  standards,  and  in  consequence  there  are  many 
structures  on  them  which  do  not  comply  with  the  present 
standards  of  the  company.  The  adoption  of  standard 
plans  for  all  stmctures,  with  the  exceptions  noted,  gradu- 
ally standardizes  the  railroad  through  reconstruction 
and  replacement  of  the  original  ones. 


ENGINEERING  43 

Track  Elevation  Engineer 

The  elevation  of  tracks  over  which  many  trains  are 
operated  in  carrying  a  large  traffic  involves  construction 
methods  of  a  special  kind,  and  such  work  is  placed  under 
the  direct  supervision  of  a  track  elevation  engineer.  The 
general  description  of  the  work  heretofore  given  will 
make  clear  the  duties  of  this  engineer. 

It  is  not  possible,  of  course,  to  abandon  the  operation 
on  any  considerable  number  of  tracks  at  the  same  time. 
The  problem  then  of  this  engineer  is  to  adjust  his  con- 
struction method  to  operation  so  as  to  cause  as  little 
delay  to  and  interference  with  it  as  possible  and  to 
accomplish  this  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of 
money.  It  is  not  difficult  to  err  in  either  direction,  for 
too  much  concession  to  operation  will  increase  the  con- 
struction cost  materially;  too  little  will  increase  opera- 
ting expenses  and  injure  the  reputation  of  the  road  as 
to  service  given  shippers  and  passengers.  In  addition 
provision  must  be  made  for  the  street  traffic  at  frequent 
intervals  along  the  line. 

The  necessity  in  track  elevation  for  bridges  over  the 
street  at  short  interv^als  complicates  the  problem  very 
much,  for  otherwise  all  tracks  might  be  raised  a  little  at 
a  time  with  no  serious  delays  either  to  the  train  service 
or  to  the  construction  forces. 

In  order  to  utilize  as  much  of  the  right  of  way  for 
tracks  as  possible,  retaining  walls  of  stone  or  concrete 
masoniy  are  first  built  on  both  sides  of  the  track,  along 
the  line  between  railroad  and  adjoining  property.  The 
material  for  raising  the  tracks  to  the  required  height 
must  of  course  be  hauled  in  from  points  where  good 
material  for  the  purpose  is  available.  Sand  is  the  best 
material,  as  it  can  be  excavated  and  loaded  economically 
by  steam  shovel,  and  when  dumped  from  the  cars  in 
raising  the  tracks  runs  readily  and  is  easily  gotten  under 


44      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  ties  so  that  the  track  being  raised  can  be  quickly 
brought  to  approximate  surface  after  the  material  is 
clumped. 

The  traffic  is  shifted  from  track  to  track  as  the  eleva- 
tion progresses,  the  tracks  being  elevated  in  ''lifts"  of 
a  few  feet  at  a  time.  As  the  abutments  for  the  bridges 
across  intersecting  streets  cannot  be  built  in  advance  of 
placing  the  material  for  track  elevation,  timber  bridges, 
usually  of  piles,  are  erected  across  the  streets  and  sup- 
port the  tracks  after  they  have  reached  their  final  eleva- 
tion until  the  permanent  masonry  and  steel  bridges  have 
been  installed. 

The  work  involves  large  forces  in  the  construction  of 
the  masonry  retaining  walls ;  one  or  more  steam  shovels 
excavating  and  loading  the  cars  with  the  filling  material ; 
construction  trains  operating  between  the  borrow  pit  and 
the  tracks  being  elevated;  large  forces  of  men  dumping 
cars  and  raising  and  shifting  tracks ;  the  driving  of  piles 
of  the  temporary  bridge  crossings  in  the  intersecting 
streets;  the  removal  of  material  in  lowering  the  grades 
of  such  streets ;  the  reconstruction  of  all  pipes,  conduits, 
and  other  sub-surface  structures;  surfacing,  lining,  and 
ballasting  the  elevated  track;  and  the  placing  of  the  per- 
manent pavement. 

The  plans  for  and  methods  of  the  construction  are, 
of  course,  determined  upon  in  advance  of  the  actual 
constniction,  and  the  work  demands  the  closest  coopera- 
tion between  the  construction  and  operating  depart- 
ments. Many  inspectors  of  masonry  and  timber  struc- 
tures and  assistant  engineers  are  required  in  "laying 
out"  the  work  and  seeing  that  it  is  properly  constructed. 

Engineer  of  Grade  Crossings 

The  agitation  for  the  abolishment  of  grade  crossings 
of  the  railroads  at  public  highways  has  forced  the  rail- 


ENGINEERING  45 

roads  to  undertake  much  construction  work  of  this  kind. 
The  work  of  track  elevation  just  described  is,  of  course, 
for  the  purpose  of  abolishing  the  grade  crossings  in 
city  streets.  There  is  a  class  of  work,  however,  in  which 
the  grade  of  the  railroad  is  not  altered  at  all  or  only 
slightly,  the  principal  reconstruction  applying  to  the 
street  or  road  crossing  the  track.  Such  work  is  not  so 
comprehensive  as  that  described  under  track  elevation, 
where  all  grade  crossings  in  the  entire  district  are  elimi- 
nated by  the  one  operation.  If  there  are  many  crossings, 
at  short  intervals,  the  track  elevation  is  the  more  eco- 
nomical method  for  the  abolition  of  the  grade  crossings ; 
if  they  are  a  considerable  distance  apart  it  costs  less  to 
alter  the  grade  of  the  street  or  road  than  to  raise  or 
lower  the  grade  of  the  railroad  for  the  entire  distance. 

There  is  much  of  such  work  in  the  older,  more  densely 
populated  districts,  and  on  roads  operating  a  great  many 
trains,  and  there  are  certain  points  also  on  all  roads, 
where  from  a  combination  of  unfavorable  conditions  a 
grade  crossing,  even  where  train  service  is  infrequent,  is 
dangerous. 

There  are  many  other  things  than  the  mere  regrading 
of  the  streets  and  roads  tliat  are  incidental  to  such  work. 
The  rearrangement  of  ditches,  drains,  pipes,  and  other 
sub-surface  stinictures  often  complicates  the  work  seri- 
ously and  requires  the  cooperation  of  the  railroad  and 
the  municipal  authorities  to  adjust  the  altered  grades  to 
meet  the  necessities  both  of  the  railroad  and  of  the 
public. 

The  engineer  in  charge  of  such  construction  on  the 
New  York  Central  Lines  is  called  engineer  of  grade 
crossings,  and  engineers  with  the  same  duties  are 
employed  on  some  other  eastern  roads.  They  are  not 
so  common  on  the  western  roads  at  present  as  they  are 
likely  to  be  later,  although  in  the  aggregate  much  work 
of  this  character  has  been  done. 


46      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

District  Engineers 

These  correspond  to  the  division  engineers  shown  in 
the  engineering  organization  for  the  construction  of  new 
lines.  The  district  engineers  have  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  large  yards,  or  oftener  of  extension  and 
reconstruction  of  the  older  ones,  and  of  industrial  and 
special  tracks,  and  other  miscellaneous  work. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  railroad 
organization  that  the  railroads  are  never  finished  but 
are  in  constant  course  of  extension,  reconstruction,  and 
adjustment  to  changing  conditions.  On  this  account 
there  is  always  more  or  less  work  for  the  construction 
division  of  the  engineering  department. 

The  district  engineer  has  charge  of  all  such  work  in 
a  certain  district.  On  the  New  York  Central  Lines  East 
of  Buffalo,  with  a  mileage  of  5,110  miles  there  are  two 
district  engineers. 

His  district,  however,  may  w^ell  be  confined  to  the  con- 
struction of  one  large  terminal,  in  which  case  he  might 
be  called  a  terminal  or  resident  engineer. 

Engineer  of  Maintenance  of  Wag 

The  title  of  the  engineer  in  charge  of  maintenance 
work  may  be  engineer  of  maintenance  or  chief  engineer 
of  maintenance  of  way. 

The  engineer's  duties  relate,  as  the  title  shows,  to  the 
maintenance  of  structures  and  roadbed  already  con- 
structed. He  is  responsible  for  the  roadbed,  ballast,  ties 
and  tie  plates,  rails  and  rail  fastenings,  s^vitches,  frogs 
and  switchstands,  fences  and  cattleguards,  street  and 
road  crossings,  track  signs,  tools  and  supplies,  tracklay- 
ing  and  ballasting,  bridges  and  structures,  water  and 
fuel  stations,  cinder  pits,  turntables,  scales,  and  build- 
ings of  all  kinds. 


ENGINEERING  47 

It  is  to  be  understood,  however,  that  theie  is  much 
replacement  work — that  is,  building  new  structures  to 
replace  old  ones  worn  out  or  unsuitable  for  use  through 
obsolescence,  inadequacy,  or  other  cause.  The  replace- 
ment of  bridges  which  are  too  light  to  carry  safely  the 
increased  loads  due  to  the  heavier  engines  and  larger 
cars  is  an  illustration  of  replacement;  the  enlargement 
of  existing  engine-houses  to  accommodate  larger  (longer) 
locomotives  is  an  example  of  another  kind  of  mainten- 
ance work;  viz.,  the  adapting  of  existing  structures  to 
changing  requirements. 

In  the  section  on  Designing  Engineers  under  the  head 
of  Construction,  the  duties  of  such  engineers  were 
explained.  It  is  to  be  understood  that  such  designing 
engineers  are  employed  in  the  work  of  maintenance  of 
way  and  structures  as  well  as  in  constniction  work,  and 
in  fact  to  a  greater  extent  on  roads  which  have  been 
in  operation  some  years. 

On  a  large  system  there  are  generally  two  assistants 
to  the  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way — the  assistant 
engineer  in  charge  of  roadway  and  track,  and  the  assist- 
ant engineer  in  charge  of  bridges  and  structures.  The 
division  engineers  in  the  operating  department  report  on 
engineering  matters  to  the  former;  the  foremen  of 
bridges  and  buildings  report  directly  to  the  latter  or 
through  the  division  engineers.  The  titles  are  descrip- 
tive of  their  duties  in  connection  with  the  explanations 
heretofore  given. 

The  signal  engineer  has  charge  of  the  signal  systems, 
including  the  interlocking  plants.  He  designs  all  the 
work  in  his  department  and  supervises  the  maintenance 
through  inspectors  and  signalmen.  The  bonding  of  the 
rail  in  the  signal  sections  and  its  insulation  require  con- 
stant attention,  and  the  maintaining  of  the  various  levers, 
rods,  idlers,  and  other  moving  parts  of  the  interlocking 


48      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

plants  free  from  obstruction  compels  much  work,  par- 
ticularly during  the  winter. 

The  engineer  of  water  supply  is  concerned  with  the 
construction  of  the  water  stations,  tanks,  water  columns, 
and  pumping  stations  with  the  connecting  systems  of 
pipes. 

The  pump  required  may  be  a  small  steam  or  gasoline 
pump  housed  in  a  frame  shanty  on  the  right  of  way  at 
some  stream,  or  a  plant  of  considerable  magnitude  situa- 
ted some  miles  from  the  railroad ;  the  pipe  system,  a  short 
run  of  three-inch  pipe  or  several  miles  of  twelve-inch 
pipe  carrying  water  at  a  considerable  pressure.  In  some 
instances  the  work  necessary  in  obtaining  the  water 
involves  the  construction  of  reservoirs  with  the  dams, 
spillways,  and  much  other  work  incident  to  such  con- 
struction; in  others,  the  drilling  of  deep  wells  with 
pumps  adapted  to  such  conditions. 

Where  the  water  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  for  engine 
or  shop  use  it  must  be  treated  chemically.  The  plant 
in  which  this  is  performed  may  be  a  very  small  one  or  of 
considerable  extent  requiring  the  design  of  a  complicated 
system  of  settling  and  other  tanks.  The  adoption  of  a 
plant  suitable  to  any  given  situation  requires  the  techni- 
cal knowledge  of  the  hydraulic  engineer  and  the  engi- 
neer in  charge  of  water  supply  might  well  have  that 
title. 

Treating  Plants 

The  supply  of  suitable  timber  for  ties  is  one  of  the 
most  serious  problems  confronting  the  railroads.  The 
cost  of  ties  is  increasing  rapidly  and  the  available  sup- 
ply is  fast  disappearing.  The  best  grade  of  white  oak 
timber  once  so  plentiful  is  so  valuable  for  other  purposes 
that  white  oak  ties  are  becoming  rare  in  railroad  tracks. 
The  principal  sources  of  tie  supply  are  the  less  durable 


ENGINEERING  49 

and  softer  woods.  Unprotected  from  decay,  however, 
such  ties  rarely  last  more  than  four  or  five  years.  In 
consequence,  the  ties  are  treated  with  various  com- 
pounds for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  resistance  to 
decay,  and  tie  plates  are  being  more  generally  used  to 
reduce  the  mechanical  wear  of  the  softer  ties  under 
heavy  traffic.  This  treatment  of  ties  and  other  railroad 
timber  involves  the  construction  of  plants  of  consider- 
able magnitude. 

The  plants  for  treating  ties  and  timber  and  the  work 
incident  to  such  treatment  are  under  the  supervision  of 
an  official  called  the  superintendent  of  timber-treating 
plants  or  some  similarly  descriptive  title. 


CHAPTER  V 

ENGINEERING— Concluded 

Electrical  Engineering 

What  has  been  said  heretofore  for  the  most  part 
applies  to  the  construction  of  railroads  operated  by 
steam  as  a  motive  power.  On  many  of  the  railroads 
there  are  zones  of  greater  or  less  length  within  which 
electric  traction  replaces  the  ordinary  steam  locomotive 
operation.  Up  to  the  present  time  such  electric  traction 
has  been  confined  to  congested  terminals,  short  tunnel 
sections,  and  peculiar  operating  conditions.  The  large 
investment  required  in  electrification  forbids  its  general 
adoption,  in  the  present  state  of  the  art,  except  in  such 
special  situations  or  under  peculiarly  favorable  condi- 
tions. 

One  of  the  first  of  the  modern  electrified  zone  oper- 
ations on  steam  railroads  was  that  of  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  in  the  tunnel  connecting  northern  Michigan  with 
the  Province  of  Ontario.  This  submarine  tunnel  under 
the  St.  Clair  River  between  Port  Huron,  Mich.,  and 
Sarnia,  Canada,  was  completed  in  1900.  It  is  a  single- 
track,  iron-lined  tube  19  feet  in  diameter  and  6032  feet 
long,  with  approach  grades  of  two  per  cent,  the  total  dis- 
tance between  the  ends  of  these  grades  being  two  and 
one-quarter  miles. 

The  locomotive  first  used  burned  anthracite  coal  to 
avoid  danger  and  inconvenience  due  to  smoke  and  gas 
in  the  tunnel.     The  train  loads  were  about  760  tons  at 

50 


ENGINEERING  51 

very  low  speed.  Increase  in  traffic  overtaxed  the  capac- 
ity of  the  tunnel,  and  its  ventilating  apparatus  proved 
inefficient  with  frequent  train  service.  Several  accidents 
occurred,  the  train  crews  being  overcome  by  the  gas- 
laden  atmosphere  of  the  tunnel.  To  increase  the  traffic 
capacity  and  eliminate  the  danger  incident  to  steam  loco- 
motive operation,  electric  traction  was  adopted  and 
placed  in  operation  in  1908.  Such  operation  in  tunnel 
sections  is  usually  introduced  for  similar  reasons.  The 
Cascade  tunnel  in  Washington  on  the  Great  Northern 
Railway,  the  tunnel  of  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad 
under  the  Detroit  River,  and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Rail- 
road tunnel  at  its  terminal  in  Baltimore  are  examples 
of  this  class  of  electrification. 

The  electrification  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  the 
New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad,  and  the 
New  York  Central  at  their  New  York  terminals,  are 
instances  of  electrification  demanded  primarily  by  tun- 
nel operation,  which  has  been  extended  to  some  distance 
beyond  the  tunnel  section  to  care  for  very  hea\'y 
through  and  suburban  passenger  traffic.  The  very 
serious  accident  in  the  tunnel  under  Park  Avenue  in  New 
York  City,  on  the  New  York  Central,  was  the  basis  of  the 
demand  made  by  the  public  for  electrification.  The  long 
tunnels  under  the  Hudson  and  East  Rivers  on  the  Penn- 
sylvania Railroad  demand  electric  traction  for  safe 
operation. 

The  electrification  of  the  Long  Island  Railroad  and  a 
portion  of  the  West  Jersey  &  Seashore  Railroad,  botli 
of  which  are  controlled  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad, 
are  examples  of  the  electrification  of  steam  railroads 
which  are  justified  to  a  large  extent  by  a  large  suburban 
passenger  business,  although  in  the  case  of  the  TiOng 
Island  Railroad  there  has  been  much  objection  from  the 
city  of  Brooklyn  to  the  smoke  nuisance  caused  by  its 
«5team  locomotives.     The  loading  of  the  power  plant  in 


52      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  original  installation  of  the  Long  Island  Railroad  pro- 
vided for  a  very  heavy  train  movement. 

Chicago,  Milivaiiliee  and  St.  Paul 

The  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  has  electrified 
a  mountain  section  of  its  line  in  the  Northwest,  where 
hydro-electric  power  is  developed  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. The  results  obtained  from  this  installation  will 
be  particularly  interesting  as  developing  the  relative 
cost  of  steam  and  electric  operation  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  to  the  latter,  viz.,  cheap  water 
power  in  a  district  where  fuel  cost  is  high. 

The  entire  work  cost  approximately  twelve  million 
dollars  and  required  three  years'  time  to  complete.  The 
electrical  energy  is  obtained  from  the  mountain  water- 
falls along  the  route. 

From  Harlowton  to  Avery,  440  miles,  the  electrifi- 
cation crosses  the  Belt  Mountains,  where  at  the  summit 
an  altitude  of  5,788  feet  is  reached ;  the  main  Rockies  or 
the  Continental  Divide,  an  altitude  of  6,322  feet  at  Don- 
ald; and  the  Bitter  Root  Mountains,  an  altitude  of  4,163 
feet  at  East  Portal.  Pipestone  Tunnel,  the  half-mile 
bore  through  the  backbone  of  the  continent  at  Donald,  is 
the  highest  elevation  oFthe  railway. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  in 
this  enormous  undertaking,  a  two  per  cent  grade  had 
to  be  surmounted  for  a  distance  of  20.9  miles  along  the 
east  approach  to  the  Continental  Divide;  immediately 
west  of  the  Continental  Divide,  for  a  distance  of  10.4 
miles,  is  a  1.66  per  cent  grade ;  and  on  the  western  slope 
of  the  Big  Belt  Mountains,  for  a  distance  of  forty  miles, 
a  one  per  cent  grade.  This  is  the  first  undertaking  to 
install  and  operate  electric  locomotives  on  tracks  extend- 
ing over  several  engine  divisions  and  under  the  most 
difficult  traffic   conditions.     The   various   terminal   and 


ENGINEERING  53 

tunnel  electric  installations  made  by  railways  in  the  past 
were  necessary  by  reason  of  local  conditions  and  were 
limited  to  short  distances.  Purely  economic  reasons, 
together  with  anticipated  superior  operating  results, 
caused  the  extended  electrification  of  this  line. 

The  electrical  power  employed  to  operate  the  entire 
440  miles  of  electrified  mail-line  road  and  the  160  miles 
of  electrified  spurs  and  yards  is  mainly  obtained  from 
the  hydro-electric  power  plant  located  at  Great  Falls, 
Mont.  The  power  is  delivered  to  the  railroad  at  four- 
teen substations  scattered  along  the  route.  The  substa- 
tions receive  the  electricity  in  100,000-volt  alternating 
current  and  deliver  it  to  locomotives  in  3,000-volt  direct 
current;  the  100,000-volt  alternating  current  is  received 
through  oil  switches,  is  conveyed  to  the  high-tension 
current  distributor  made  up  of  three  lines  of  copper 
tubing,  and  there  forms  the  source  of  power  for  the  sub- 
station. From  the  current  distributor  the  current  is 
conducted  through  other  oil  switches  to  the  transformers 
— entering  at  100,000  volts  and  emerging  at  2,300  volts. 

The  voltage  being  reduced,  the  next  step  is  to  change 
from  alternating  to  direct  current.  The  current  is  con- 
ducted from  the  transformers  through  switches  to  the 
motor-generator  sets  and  is  the  power  employed  to 
operate  them.  Motor  generators,  of  which  there  are 
either  two  or  three  in  each  substation,  consist  of  one 
alternating-current  motor  driving  two  direct-current 
generators.  The  motor  is  of  the  sixty-cycle  synchronous 
type,  which  means  that  the  current  changes  sixty  times 
each  second.  Each  set  generates  a  1,500  or  2,000-volt 
direct  current,  and  the  two  generators,  being  perma- 
nently connected  in  series,  deliver  a  combined  direct  cur- 
rent of  3,000  volts,  which  is  the  highest  voltage  direct 
current  adopted  for  railroad  work  in  the  world.  By  way 
of  comparison,  the  direct-current  voltage  for  ordinary 
street  railwav  work  is  onlv  550  volts. 


54      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

After  passing  through  the  control  switches,  this  3,000- 
volt  direct  current  is  conducted  to  the  feeder  and  trolley 
lines,  and  thonco  througli  the  pantagraph  for  the  opera- 
tion of  the  locomotive.  Each  locomotive  is  equipped 
with  two  pantagraphs,  one  located  at  each  end.  The 
pantagraph  performs  the  same  functions  as  the  trolley- 
pole  on  the  ordinary  electric  car. 

A  strong  steel  cable,  called  a  catenary,  runs  just 
above  the  trolley  wire  and  parallel  to  it  all  the  way,  and 
from  this  catenary  the  trolley  wire  is  suspended  by 
hangers  at  short  intervals.  In  ordinary  trolley  con- 
struction crosswdres  strung  betw^een  twin  poles  are  the 
only  support  for  the  trolley  w^ire.  But  in  the  catenary 
type,  single  poles  each  bearing  a  bracket  support  the 
catenary,  and  the  catenary  supports  the  trolley  wire. 
While  bracket  construction  is  used  on  straight  track, 
cross-span  construction  is  employed  on  sharp  curves 
and  in  the  yards. 

The  trolley  wires,  of  which  there  are  two,  are  of 
4/0  size.  They  are  especially  made  for  high-voltage 
electrical  power  use,  and  are  the  largest  diameter  copper 
wire  employed  for  this  purpose.  This  form  of  con- 
struction permits  the  collection  of  heavy  current  through 
the  twin  contact  of  the  pantagraph  with  the  two  trolley 
wires,  and  assures  sparkless  collection  under  all  speeds. 

Under  normal  conditions,  forty-two  immense  electrical 
locomotives  are  required  to  haul  freight  and  passenger 
trains  over  the  electrified  mountain  districts.  These 
locomotives  each  cost  approximately  $112,000;  they 
weigh  284  tons  each  and  will  haul  3,200-ton  loads  trail- 
ing up  a  one  per  cent  grade  at  an  average  speed  of 
sixteen  miles  an  hour.  Similar  electric  locomotives 
geared  for  greater  speed  will  haul  800-ton  passenger 
trains  over  the  same  stretch  of  road  at  a  speed  of  about 
twenty-five  miles  an  hour,  and  on  a  level  stretch  at  a 
speed  of  sixty  miles  per  hour.     The  wood-burning  loco- 


ENGINEERING  55 

motive  of  fifty  years  ago  weighed  twenty  tons  and  bad 
a  tractive  power  of  only  5,000  pounds.  The  present  day 
Mallet  steam  locomotive  has  a  tractive  power  of  about 
80,000  pounds,  and  the  electrical  locomotives  weighing 
284  tons  have  a  tractive  power  of  85,000  pounds.  These 
electrical  locomotives  are  112  feet,  8  inches  long,  and 
are  driven  by  separate  motors,  twin-geared  to  each  of 
eight  pairs  of  driving  wheels.  The  cab  extends  for 
nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  locomotive. 

Regenerative  braking  is  a  method  used  on  down 
grades,  by  which  the  train,  instead  of  consuming  electric- 
ity, actually  produces  it  while  traveling  onward,  and 
by  which,  at  the  same  time,  the  speed  of  the  train  is 
kept  under  perfect  control. 

This  is  the  first  use  ever  made  of  direct  current 
regenerative  braking,  and  the  more  clearly  to  explain  its 
functions,  the  following  is  quoted  from  an  authority  on 
the  subject. 

Electric  motors  are  reversible  in  their  function;  while  they 
absorb  electrical  energy  and  give  out  mechanical  energy  going 
up  grades,  they  can  reverse  this  operation  and  absorb  the 
mechanical  energy  given  the  train  down  grade  by  gravity  and 
transform  it  into  electrical  energy-.  Thus  the  electric  locomo- 
tive provides  a  perfect  braking  system,  independent  and  sepa- 
rate from  the  air  brakes,  which  are  used  only  in  emergency  and 
for  stopping  trains.  Electric  energy  so  generated  can  be  turned 
into  the  trolley  wire  to  assist  other  trains. 

In  actual  operation,  at  the  crest  of  the  grade,  the 
helper  locomotive  is  brought  to  the  front  of  the  train 
and  coupled  with  the  forward  locomotive,  the  two  being 
operated  as  one.  The  train  is  then  controlled  on  the 
down  grade  by  regenerative  braking.  This  system  of 
braking  provides  maximum  safety,  eliminates  wheel, 
brake-shoe,  and  track  wear  and  overheating,  insures 
uniform  speed  on  down  grades,  and  returns  electrical 
energy  to  substations  to  be  utilized  by  other  trains. 
From  twenty-five  to  fifty-two  per  cent  of  power  is  thus 
recovered. 


56      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
New  York  Central 

A  short  description  of  the  construction  work  in  the 
Electric  Zone  of  the  New  York  Central  will  give  an  idea 
of  the  plant  and  equipment  which  the  operating  organ- 
ization has  to  look  after.  The  description  is  taken  from 
an  article  appearing  in  the  Engineering  Neivs  during  the 
construction  period.  The  headquarters  organization  is 
indicated  in  Figure  2. 


Vice-President 


Electrification 


Construction 


Architecture 


Elect.  Traction  Commission 
Chairman  -  Vice-President 
3  Prominent  Elect.  Engrs. 


Design 


Elect.  Engineer 


Execution 


2  Firms  of 
Prominent 
Architects 


Executive 
Architect 


2  Designing 
Engineers 


Bridge 
Engineer 


Signal 
Engineer 


Principal  Asst.  Engineer 


Assistant  to 

Principal 

Asst.  Engineer 


Terminal 
Engineer 


Fig.  2. — Construction  Organization  of  Electric  Zone  and  New  York 
Terminal,  New  York  Central  Railroad 

A  map  of  the  region  over  which  the  New  York  Central 's  termi- 
nal improvements  extend  is  shown  in  Figure  3,  in  which  hea\y 
full  lines  have  been  used  to  indicate  the  divisions  over  which 
the  electric  operation  has  been  installed,  while  other  New  York 
Central  divisions  are  shown  by  hea\'y  broken  lines.  Croton-on- 
Hudson  on  the  main  line  or  Hudson  Division,  and  North  White 
Plains,  on  the  Harlem  Division,  are  the  terminal  points  of  the 
electrical  zone.  Each  division  is  four-tracked  to  these  points, 
with  two  suburban  tracks  on  the  outside  and  two  through 
tracks  in  the  middle.  On  each  division  the  suburban  tracks 
are  connected  by  a  loop  at  the  northern  terminus.  All  tracks 
are  equipped  with  a  third  rail,  located  outside  the  track.  Elec- 
tric current  is  supplied  to  the  electric  zone  from  two  generating 
stations,  one  located  at  Port  ]\Iorris.  Borough  of  the  Bronx, 
New  York  City;  the  other  at  Yonkei-s,  N.  Y.,  on  the  Hudson 
River. 


ENGINEERING 


57 


PiQ.  3. — ^Map  of  Now   York  Tenniiial   Lines  and  Electric  Zone,  New  York 
Central  &  Hudson  River  Railroad 


58      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Roadway  and  Trackage. — The  arrangement  of  tracks  and 
conductor  rails  is  exhibited  in  Figure  4,  which  is  a  cross  section 
through  the  standard  four-track  roadway.  The  feature  of  prime 
interest  is  the  conductor  rail,  an  under-running  protected  third 
rail.  The  conductor  rail  is  a  bullhead  rail,  seventy  pounds  per 
yard,  supported  at  intervals  of  eleven  feet  by  cast-iron  goose- 
neck pedestals,  which  are  fastened  each  by  three  three-quarter- 
inch  lagscrews  to  a  long  track  tie.  A  two-piece  porcelain  insula- 
tor block,  molded  so  as  to  sun-ound  completely  the  upper  head 
and  the  web  of  the  rail,  is  clamped  in  the  pedestal  and  supports 
the  rail.  These  insulators  are  six  inches  long,  projecting  one 
and  one-half  inches  on  either  side  of  the  pedestal,  which  is  three 
inches  wide;  a  forged  strap,  fitting  over  the  block,  holds  it  in 
place  in  the  pedestal.  Between  insulators  the  rail  is  surrounded 
by  a  built-up  wooden  sheathing,  whose  cross  section  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  insulator.  Thus  the  live  rail  is  protected  along  its 
entire  length,  leaving  only  the  lower  head  of  the  rail  projecting 
from  the  insulating  sheath.  Protection  against  interruption  of 
service  by  sleet,  ice,  and  snow  has  been  aimed  at  in  this  design 
as  well  as  protection  to  persons. 

y.—  'Z'4^'lv  Gaije  Une  of  Tnrck  fkil 


ISE.  "f  Runnina  Rail  of  Track 


Details   of 


K--ei'-- •>!< 8'3i''t>EndofTie 

Pedestal    and    Insulator 


Lm^ 


f^\i  w,x'.M  r« 
yleaf    \-^^-^^  Insulator-.^       Joint cf  Third fkif; 
'tliownne^m^^  ^  K) Il'o'- ■>!<■—-      '  "'" 


{llb'-^ 


CN-6. 
.   NEWS. 


70 IhConfaof- fkil  '-l^d Nails  Spaced 8'  'Insulator 

Details    of    Pro+iection    Sheathing. 


Fig.  4. — Cross  Section  through  the  Standard  Four-Track  Railway 


At  some  special  locations  an  overhead  conductor  is  used  in 
place  of  the  third  rail.     In  approaching  such  sections  an  auto- 


ENGINEERING  59 

matie. device  on  the  motor-car  or  locomotive  depresses  the  con- 
tact shoes  away  from  the  third  rail  and  lifts  the  overhead 
contact  arm  into  place.  The  trackwork  and  third  rail  installa- 
tion were  done  by  the  company  forces. 

The  changes  in  trackage  and  structures  include,  beside  com- 
plete four-tracking  in  the  Electric  Zone  and  installation  of 
conductor  rail,  many  improvements  in  alignment,  the  construc- 
tion of  interchange  yards  and  repair  shops  at  the  terminals  of 
the  Electric  Zone,  the  elimination  of  grade  crossings  at  many 
points,  the  reconstruction  of  way  stations  in  the  Electric  Zone, 
and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Grand  Central  Station  and  Terminal. 

At  Croton-on-Hudson  and  North  White  Plains,  the  northern 
terminals  of  the  Eleotric  Zone,  facilities  are  provided  for  the 
change  from  steam  to  electric  locomotives,  and  vice-versa,  for 
through  trains,  and  suitable  shops  for  necessary  repairs  to  the 
electric  equipment. 

A  complete  new  system  of  automatic  signals  in  the  Electric 
Zone,  together  with  a  comprehensive  system  of  interlocking,  was 
installed. 

The  frequent  train  service  contemplated  with  the  commence- 
ment of  electrical  operation  rendered  it  absolutely  essential  for 
the  safety  of  the  public,  and  the  efficient  movement  of  the  traffic, 
that  all  grade  street  crossings  within  the  limits  of  the  Electric 
Zone  be  abolished.  This  was  accomplished  at  some  points  by 
means  of  overhead  bridges;  at  others,  by  carrying  the  streets 
under  the  elevated  tracks. 


General 

The  electrification  of  isolated  sections  of  the  steam 
railroads  will  continue  in  special  situations,  such  as  in 
long  terminals,  in  large  cities,  or  on  roads  with  hea\^ 
suburban  traffic,  but  its  general  adoption  need  not  be 
expected  for  some  time  to  come.  The  cost  of  the  work  is 
great,  which  means  that  its  use  entails  large  additions  to 
the  capital  account  and  in  consequence  large  increase  in 
the  fixed  interest  charges  on  the  additional  capital.  No 
doubt  continued  electric  operation  will  develop  certain 
economies  not  now  possible,  but  for  much  the  greater 
part  of  railroad  traffic,  steam  operation  will  continue  to 
be  more  economical  when  all  the  factors  determining  the 


60      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

net  earnings  after  paying  fixed  charges  are  included  in 
the  comparison. 

Illustration  of  Engineering  Organization 

The  organization  on  all  large  roads  embraces,  of 
course,  the  officers  doing  the  same  work,  but  the  titles 
and  manner  of  reporting  vary. 

On  the  comparatively  small  Nashville,  Chattanooga 
&  St.  Louis  Eailway  System  the  chief  engineer  reports 
to  the  general  manager  and  the  department  engineers  to 
him.  On  the  construction  side,  the  resident  engineers 
report  through  the  division  engineers  (of  construction) 
to  the  engineer  of  construction,  who  reports  to  the  chief 
engineer.  The  signalmen  report  through  the  signal  engi- 
neer to  the  chief  engineer  and  also  to  the  division  engi- 
neer (of  maintenance)  on  current  operation.  The  timber 
and  tie  agent  reports  to  the  general  roadmaster,  who  in 
turn  reports  both  to  the  engineer  and  to  the  division 
superintendent. 

Figure  5  summarizes  this  organization: 


General  Manager 


Chief  Engineer 


Engineer 
Construction 

Division 
Engineer 

Resident 
Engineer 

Department 
Engineers 


Signal 
Engineer 


Signalmen 


General 
Roadmaster 


Timber 
and  Tie 
Agent 


Division 
Superintendent 

Division 
Engineer 

Signalmen 

Fio.  5. — Engineering  Organization  of  the  Nashville,  Chattanooga  &  St.  Louia 

Railway 


ENGINEERING 


61 


62      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  engineering  organization  of  the  Louisville  &  Nash- 
ville Eailroad  is  shown  in  Figure  6. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  chief  and  consulting  engineer 
report  to  the  general  manager,  and  that  the  chief  engi- 
neer of  construction  and  the  principal  assistant  engineer 
report  to  the  chief  engineer.  This  principal  assistant 
engineer  is  in  charge  of  maintenance  of  way  and  has 
nine  officers  reporting  to  him,  six  of  whom  are  engineers ; 
viz.,  signal,  bridge,  maintenance-of-way  (track  and  road- 
bed), miscellaneous  work,  designing,  water  supply.  The 
architect,  general  roadmaster  (track),  and  superintend- 
ent of  timber-treating  plants  having  direct  responsibility 
for  the  execution  of  work  report  to  him  directly  also. 
The  supervisors  of  bridges  and  buildings  and  the  assist- 
ant engineers  (division  engineers)  report  directly  to  the 
division  superintendent  on  current  operation,  and  to  the 
assistant  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way  and  bridge 
engineers  on  standards  of  maintenance. 

The  engineering  organization  employed  in  the  largest 
systems  is  shown  for  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 
Eailroad  in  Figure  7. 

There  is  a  chief  engineer  of  the  whole  system  report- 
ing to  the  vice  president  in  charge  of  construction  and 
operation.  There  are  four  chief  engineers  reporting 
to  the  chief  engineer  of  system  on  matters  relating  to 
standards  of  engineering  work  and  structures  and  to 
the  general  managers  on  maintenance  of  Avay  and  other 
operating  matters.  The  chief  engineer  at  Topeka,  Kan., 
has  charge  of  3,016  miles  of  lines;  at  Amarillo,  Tex.,  of 
3,844  miles ;  at  Los  Angeles,  of  2,060  miles.  At  Prescott, 
Ariz.,  the  chief  engineer  has  charge  of  the  Santa  Fe, 
Phoenix  &  Prescott  Eailway,  403  miles.  It  will  be  noted 
that  each  of  the  three  first-named  chief  engineers  has 
charge  of  a  constituent  part  of  the  system  averaging 
2,930  miles  in  length.  They  each  have  an  assistant 
engineer  in  charge  of  maintenance  and  on  the  Coast 


ENGINEERING 


63 


4  -Chiif  EM6(H[eifs 


(Qua  no  CsTDiCT.) 


IS-  Division 
enciNeeifs. 


Chicf  ENO-ineeR 


Signal  EfiO"JFfR 
Systeh. 


l\ 


Sl&NAL    fOReH4N 


P 


Fig,  7. — Engineering  Organization  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 

Railway 


Lines  the  chief  engineer  has  an  assistant  in  charge  of 
construction  in  addition.  An  assistant  valuation  engi- 
neer and  the  supervisor  of  water  service  report  to  them, 
as  well  as  three  signal  supervisors  on  matters  relating 
to  maintenance  of  signals. 

The  following  system  officers  also  report  directly  to 
the  system  chief  engineer;  viz.,  signal  engineer,  bridge 
engineer,  valuation  engineer,  architect,  and  manager  of 
timber-treating  plants,  and  in  addition  assistant  engi- 
neers of  construction.  All  these  except  the  last-named 
are  staff  officers  charged  with  the  design  of  work  and 
establishment  of  standards. 

This  organization  is  based  on  the  idea  that  matters 
of  general  policy  and  standards  shall  be  under  the  con- 
trol of  system  officers,  and  general  uniformity  of  engi- 
neering practice  is  thus  obtained ;  the  actual  performance 


64      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  engineering  work  in  accordance  with  such  policy  and 
standards  is  in  the  hands  of  line  officers  exercising 
authority  over  several  constituent  parts  of  the  system, 
each  limited  as  to  length  of  line  included  by  the  capacity 
of  one  man  to  supervise  it,  which  assures  obtaining  all 
the  benefit  of  close  supervision  which  smaller  systems 
enjoy. 


CHAPTER  VI 

OPERATION— THE  OPERATING  UNIT 

The  operating  department  is  perhaps  the  one  with 
which,  through  travel,  the  general  public  is  most  familiar 
and  the  one  with  which  it  comes  in  contact  most  fre- 
quently. So  far  as  the  traveling  public  is  concerned, 
its  demands  are  that  it  be  furnished  with  an  adequate 
and  frequent  service;  that  the  operation  of  trains  be 
surrounded  with  all  the  safe-guards  possible;  and  that 
the  equipment  be  such  as  to  minimize  the  loss  of  life  in 
the  event  of  disaster.  And,  for  the  most  part,  such  legis- 
lation as  has  been  proposed  or  passed  has  for  its  aim 
the  achievement  of  one  or  more  of  these  ends. 

The  accomplishment  of  this  purpose  is  one  that 
requires  an  organization  of  the  most  minute  and  efficient 
kind. 

To  exercise  the  necessary  personal  or  inmiediate 
supervision  essential  to  safe  conduct  of  transportation, 
the  activities  of  the  operating  department  are  based  on 
a  combination  of  units,  commonly  known  as  divisions. 
The  large  systems  which  we  now  have  are  combinations 
of  many  of  these  units,  the  operation  of  which,  except 
as  to  special  situations,  is  fundamentally  the  same. 

The  limit  of  a  division  is  determined  by  the  operating 
conditions  of  the  territory  involved.  There  are  two 
factors  affecting  this  limit:  distance  and  density  of 
traffic.  A  division  may  be  anywhere  from  250  to  800 
miles  in  length,  depending  on  the  two  factors  just  named. 
In  general,  they  are  from  300  to  500  miles  long.  In  tlie 
case  of  a  terminal  at  a  busy  traffic  center,  however,  the 

65 


66      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

division  may  well  be  and  frequently  is  confined  to  the 
terminal  itself. 

The  following  tabulation  showing  the  operating  divi- 
sions of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway, 
East  of  Albuquerque,  furnishes  a  good  illustration  of 
this  statement. 

Main  line  Branch  line      Total 

ininois  Division    232.9  57.7  290.6 

Missouri  Division 213.5  79.3  292.8 

Kansas  City  Division Terminal  12.7 

Eastern  Di\dsion 218.5  198.2  416.7 

Southern  Kansas  Division 347.8  344.3  692.1 

Middle  Division 261.9  360.1  622.0 

Oklahoma  Division 336.5  387.6  724.1 

Western  Division 251.8  285.9  537.7 

Arkansas  River  Division 202.4  145.8  348.2 

Panhandle  Division 106.6  528.4  635.0 

Plains  Division 522.1  224.3  746.4 

Pecos  Division 240.0  54.3  294.3 

Colorado  Division 182.3  50.0  232.3 

New  Mexico  Division 347.5  135.6  483.1 

Rio  Grande  Division 307.6  116.5  424.1 

Division  of  Work 

It  may  be  stated  that  so  far  as  divisional  operation 
is  concerned  there  are  three  main  divisions  of  the  work : 
first,  the  movement  of  trains  or  conducting  transporta- 
tion; second,  maintaining  the  road  bed,  track,  and  struc- 
tures, called  maintenance  of  way;  and  third,  maintenance 
of  engines,  cars,  and  other  rolling  stock,  called  main- 
tenance of  equipment.  The  officer  charged  with  the 
operation  and  maintenance  of  a  division  is  the  superin- 
tendent. In  American  practice,  the  division  superin- 
tendent has  entire  supervision  of  the  maintenance  of  the 
road,  maintenance  of  the  equipment,  and  conducting 
transportation  on  his  division.  He  controls  the  move- 
ment of  trains  through  the  trainmaster  and  the  main- 
tenance   of   equipment    through   the   master   mechanic. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  67 

Within  the  limits  of  his  jurisdiction,  he  is  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes  general  superintendent  during  the  absence 
of  that  officer. 

The  New  York  Central  system  of  operating  organiza- 
tion is  the  most  notable  exception  to  this  statement.  The 
essential  differences  between  the  American  practice  of 
vesting  all  authority  of  operation  in  the  superintendent 
and  the  plan  of  distributing  such  authority  between  the 
superintendent  and  the  mechanical  and  engineering 
departments  will  be  subsequently  discussed. 

On  an  operating  division  350  miles  long  with  moder- 
ately hea\y  traffic,  the  organization  for  conducting  trans- 
portation would  be,  say,  two  trainmasters ;  two  or  three 
dispatchers'  forces,  including  station  operators;  yard- 
masters  and  crews  at  the  ends  of  the  division,  at  inter- 
mediate terminals,  and  at  important  junction  points; 
station  agents  and  station  forces;  train  crews.  The 
trainmaster  reports  to  the  superintendent  dii'ectly;  in 
some  instances  the  dispatchers,  yardmasters,  and  station 
agents  report  to  the  superintendent  directly,  in  others 
through  the  trainmaster.  The  train  crews  report  to  the 
trainmaster  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  road  operation, 
the  enginemen  under  the  supervision  of  the  road  engi- 
neer foreman  to  the  master  mechanic  in  mechanical 
matters. 

In  maintenance  of  way,  the  organization  consists  of, 
say,  fifty  section  forces  reporting  to  two  roadmasters, 
either  directly  or  through,  say,  four  supervisors  of 
track ;  the  roadmasters  reporting  to  the  divdsion  engineer 
or  superintendent ;  one  foreman  of  bridges  and  buildings 
with  carpenter,  mason,  and  painting  crews  reporting  to 
the  division  engineer;  one  division  foreman  of  signals 
who  in  the  case  of  block  signals  and  many  interlocking 
plants  has  charge  of  the  signalmen  at  such  plants  and 
inspectors  for  the  block  signals,  the  foreman  reporting 
to  the   superintendent   and   the   supervisor  of   signals; 


68      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

when  only  the  simple  station  signals  are  in  use  the  sig- 
nalmen usually  report  to  the  division  engineer. 

In  the  maintenance  of  equipment,  the  organization 
consists  of  the  enginemen  under  the  supervision  of  two 
road  foremen  of  engines  as  to  operating  conditions,  and 
on  locomotive  maintenance  under  the  engine-house  fore- 
man; one  engine-house  foreman  with  an  assistant  for 
night  duty,  to  whom  the  various  foremen  at  the  engine- 
house  report,  as  boiler  maker,  tankmen,  air-brake 
men,  machinist,  blacksmith,  tinsmith,  toolers,  carpen- 
ters, painters,  hostlers,  cinder-pit  men,  etc.;  and  the 
road  engine  foreman  and  the  engine-house  foreman 
reporting  to  the  master  mechanic,  who  in  some  cases 
has  an  assistant. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  direct  supervision  of  train 
movement  is  through  the  trainmaster;  the  direct  inspec- 
tion of  the  track  is  through  the  roadmaster;  engine 
operation  is  directly  supervised  by  the  road  foreman 
of  engines;  engine  maintenance  by  the  engine-house 
foreman. 

The  officers  directly  responsible  to  the  superintendent 
are:  the  trainmaster  for  transportation;  the  master 
mechanic  for  equipment;  the  division  engineer  or  road- 
master  for  track,  roadbed,  and  structures. 

If  the  railroad  were  only  about  the  length  of  a  divi« 
sion,  this  organization  would  attend  to  all  details  of 
operation.  Without  regard  to  density  of  traffic,  five 
hundred  miles  of  line  is  about  the  limit  which  one  divi- 
sion organization  can  handle  efficiently.  As  the  traffic 
becomes  more  dense,  the  number  of  trains  increases  and 
the  length  of  the  division  must  decrease  in  consequence. 
At  terminals  of  considerable  size,  efficient  operation  will 
require  that  the  terminal  itself  be  the  operating  division, 
for  the  reason  that  the  movements  of  trains  and  switch- 
ing crews  are  so  frequent  that  they  require  very  close 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  69 

supervision  to  insure  safety  and  to  prevent  the  blocka(l- 
ing  of  traffic. 

The  average  length  of  a  division  on  the  Louisville 
&  Nashville  Railroad  is  360  miles;  on  the  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee &  St.  Paul,  387  miles;  on  the  Chesapeake  & 
Ohio,  347  miles;  on  the  Pennsylvania  (largely  four 
tracks),  244  miles.  The  following  roads  have  longer 
divisions,  the  average  for  each  system  being  as  given: 
the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific,  413  miles;  the  Chi- 
cago &  Northwestern,  426  miles ;  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
&  Quincy,  446  miles;  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe, 
about  417  miles;  these  latter  roads  have  a  large  per- 
centage of  branch  line  mileage,  which  of  course  requires 
less  supervision  than  busy  main  lines. 

Combination  of  Division  Units — The  District 

On  a  railroad  system  about  1,500  miles  long  with 
average  density  of  traffic,  there  are  four  or  five  division 
superintendents.  Without  supervision  there  would  be 
four  or  five  different  kinds  of  operating  organizations. 
No  two  divisions  present  operating  conditions  exactly 
alike,  but  certain  general  conditions  are  common  to  them 
all,  and  some  one  general  plan  of  organization  will  be 
the  best  for  all  of  them.  The  general  superintendent  or 
general  manager  will  be  the  officer  then  to  coordinate  the 
work  of  these  several  divisions  and  make  of  the  various 
separate  units  a  smoothly  operating  machine  with  all 
parts  adjusted  one  to  the  other. 

If  the  system  is  still  larger,  there  may  well  be  several 
districts,  each  one  different  from  the  others  but  witli 
conditions  within  each  district  practically  uniform. 

The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  is  a  great  railroad 
system  with  11,136  miles  of  main  and  branch  lines, 
extending  from  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
on  one  hand  to  the  Great  Lakes  at  Chicago  on  the  other. 


70      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

While  its  trains  in  California  are  being  loaded  with 
tropical  fruits  and  those  in  Texas  with  cotton,  the 
operating  department  may  be  fighting  blizzards  in  Colo- 
rado and  Kansas,  and  snow  in  Chicago.  On  the  eastern, 
western,  and  northern  portions  of  the  system  the  traffic 
is  dense,  and  for  miles  in  intervening  desert  territory 
there  is  scarcely  any  local  traffic  at  all.  On  one  portion 
of  the  system  the  engines  use  crude  oil  for  fuel,  on 
another  Illinois  ''run  of  mine"  coal.  Several  divisions 
will  be  operating  snow  plows  while  on  other  portions 
of  the  line  they  are  applying  oil  to  the  roadbed  to  lay 
the  dust.  Where  the  line  crosses  the  mountains  there 
are  sharp  curves,  stiff  grades,  and  huge  engines  with  one 
or  more  pusher  engines  to  assist,  and  in  the  flat  plains 
there  is  straight  track,  with  easy  grade,  and  compara- 
tively light  engines  haul  long  trains  unassisted. 

From  these  circumstances  arises  the  necessity  for 
separating  the  system  into  major  divisions  and  subdi- 
viding these  into  districts,  comprised  of  several  opera- 
ting divisional  units  having  the  same  general  physical 
characteristics. 

District  Organization 

The  lengths  of  these  districts  will,  as  in  the  case  of 
an  oiDerating  division,  be  determined  by  the  character 
of  the  traffic,  with  certain  limitations  as  to  length  regard- 
less of  traffic. 

The  officer  in  charge  of  such  an  operating  district  is 
a  general  superintendent,  and  he  supervises  the  operation 
of  from  three  to  five  divisions,  his  jurisdiction  extending 
as  an  average  over  1,500  miles  of  line. 

On  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railroad  there 
are  four  general  superintendents,  fifteen  division  super- 
mtenclents,  and  two  assistant  superintendents  in  charge 
of  6,770  miles  between  Chicago  and  Albuquerque,  N.  M., 
ot  an  average  of  451  miles  per  division  superintendent 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT 


71 


and  1,692  miles  of  line  for  a  general  superintendent's 
district ;  on  the  Coast  Lines  extending  from  Albuquerque 
west,  one  general  superintendent  in  charge  of  a  district 
of  2,042  miles,  with  four  division  superintendents. 

The  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Kailroad,  with  9,140 
miles  of  line,  has  five  general  superintendents  with 
twenty  division  superintendents  and  eleven  assistant 
superintendents  reporting  to  them,  an  average  of  four 
division  superintendents  and  about  1,800  miles  for  each 
general  superintendent's  district.  On  5,368  miles  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  there  are  five  general  superin- 
tendents with  twenty-two  divisions  and  two  assistant 
superintendents  reporting  to  them,  an  average  of  about 
four  division  superintendents  and  1,074  miles  for  each 
general  superintendent's  district. 

The  duties  of  a  general  superintendent  relate  to 
transportation  matters — the  movement  of  trains  and  the 
maintenance  of  the  property.  On  smaller  systems  he  has 
general  charge  of  car  accounting  and  distribution,  but 
these  duties  are  delegated  to  assistants.  On  many  of  the 
larger  systems  in  the  district  organization,  car  account- 
ing and  distribution  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
superintendent  of  transportation;  general  supervision 
of  roadway  and  stnictures,  under  a  resident  engineer 
of  maintenance  of  way;  and  general  supervision  over 
maintenance  of  equipment,  under  the  mechanical  super- 
intendent. That  is,  in  the  district  organization  there 
are  three  main  divisions  of  the  operation  just  as  there 
are  in  the  small  divisional  unit,  thus: 


Transportation 
Maintenanoe  of  way 
Maintenance  of  equip- 
ment 
Signals 
Reporting  to 


Divisional  Unit 
Orgaxization 
Trainmaster 
Division  engineer 
Master  mechanic 

Siernal  foreman 


District  Organiza- 
tion 
Division  superintendent 
District  engineer 
Mechanical  8Uj)erin- 

tendent 
Signal  supervisor 
Division  superintendent    General  superintendent 


72       RAILWAY  OKUANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Tlioro  arc  several  arrangements  of  these  district 
officers.  On  the  Pennsylvania,  the  principal  assistant 
engineer  (maintenance  of  way)  and  the  superintendent 
of  motive  power  (maintenance  of  equipment)  report  to 
the  general  superintendent,  the  distribution  and  account- 
ing of  cars  being  through  the  superintendent  of  trans- 
portation; on  the  Union  Pacific,  all  of  them  report  to 
the  general  superintendent.  The  point  to  remember, 
however,  is  that  there  is  some  special  officer  in  the 
district  organization,  whether  he  be  an  assistant  in  some 
other  general  officer's  department  or  has  a  title  of  his 
own,  who  attends  specifically  to  (1)  movement  of  trains, 
(2)  maintenance  of  road,  (3)  maintenance  of  equipment; 
and  in  addition  there  are  special  officers  in  charge  of 
signals,  water  service,  etc. 

General  Superintendent 

This  officer  gets  all  the  ''tough"  transportation  prob- 
lems that  come  up  from  his  division  superintendents. 
Much  of  his  time  is  spent  on  the  road  in  close  contact 
with  them.  Allien  he  is  responsible  for  the  roadbed  and 
equipment,  this  personal  contact  extends  to  the  engineers 
of  maintenance  of  way  and  mechanical  superintendents 
as  well.  His  relations  in  the  district  organization  are 
much  the  same  as  those  of  the  division  superintendent 
in  the  smaller  organization;  he  represents  the  general 
manager  in  transportation  matters  in  all  cases,  and  in 
some  instances  the  chief  engineer  and  the  superintendent 
of  motive  power  in  the  maintenance  of  way  and  equip- 
ment. 

General  Transportation  Officiuls 

The  following  extract  from  a  letter  of  Mr.  E.  P. 
Ripley,  president  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  73 

Eailway,  indicates  the  duties  of  some  officers  on  that 
road: 

Superintendent  of  Transportation. — This  officer  reports 
directly  to  the  operating  vice  president.  He  pays  particular 
attention  to  the  distribution  of  freight  cars  between  system  lines 
and  keeps  track  of  the  movement  of  company  freight  cars  over 
foreign  lines  and  of  foreign  cars  over  company  lines.  He  handles 
also  the  distribution  of  passenger  equipment,  including  Pull- 
man cars.  He  does  not  make  distribution  of  cars  direct  to  indus- 
tries, this  being  handled  by  other  operating  officers. 

Transportation  Inspectors. — One  inspector  is  employed  on 
each  division  and  reports  direct  to  the  general  superintendent. 
These  inspectors  pay  particular  attention  to  the  prompt  move- 
ment of  loaded  and  empty  freight  cars  out  of  yards  and  from 
stations;  to  the  condition  of  equipment,  i.  e.,  that  no  bad-order 
cars  are  set  for  loading  and  that  cars  in  such  condition  are 
promptly  so  reported;  to  carload  freight  received  from  connect- 
ing lines ;  to  loading  of  high-class  freight,  such  as  automobiles, 
in  order  to  determine  that  the  articles  contained  in  the  ears  are 
properly  braced.  It  is  also  the  duty  of  these  inspectors  to  see 
to  it  as  far  as  possible  that  freight  is  billed  out  the  day  it  is 
received.  The  proper  keeping  of  station  records  and  the  economi- 
cal use  and  requisitioning  of  stationery  and  supplies  also  are 
matters  which  receive  their  attention. 

General  Superintendent. — The  duties  of  this  officer  are 
so  varied  that  it  is  difficult  to  define  them  in  a  paragraph.  He 
supervises  all  operating  and  maintenance  matters  in  his  terri- 
tory, disposes  of  labor  and  general  questions  to  the  extent  that 
his  authority  is  final,  and  collects,  condenses,  and  submits  with 
his  recommendation  information  as  to  any  matters  which  require 
the  attention  of  his  general  manager.  Superintendents  and 
transpbrtation  inspectors  report  to  him  direct. 

On  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Railway,  the 
general  supervisor  of  transportation  has  charge  of  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  demurrage  and  per  diem;  the  super- 
intendent of  transportation  has  charge  of  car  distribu- 
tion ;  the  car  service  agent  has  charge  of  all  the  records 
of  car  movements. 

On  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad,  the 
superintendent  of  transportation  has  charge  of  the  move- 
ment of  all  cars  over  the  entire  system,  his  principal 


74      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

duty  being  car  distribution.  The  general  inspector  of 
transportation  attends  to  various  duties  relating  to  the 
arrangement  of  train  schedules  and  to  the  supervision 
of  train  rules  and  the  examiners  who  examine  trainmen 
on  rules,  and  reports  to  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission on  personal-injury  cases,  violations  of  the  "hours 
of  service"  law,  and  other  transportation  features  on 
which  the  Commission  requires  reports.  He  also  has 
various  special  duties  which  are  assigned  him  from  time 
to  time. 

On  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  the  general  super- 
intendent of  transportation  has  general  supervision  of 
the  movement  of  all  traffic — passenger  and  freight — and 
of  the  distribution  of  cars,  being  in  effect  an  assistant 
general  manager  in  charge  of  transportation  with 
specific  authority  over  car  service;  reporting  to  him 
are  the  superintendent  of  freight  transportation,  who 
is  in  effect  a  freight  traffic  representative  in  the  oper- 
ating department,  having  charge  of  car  distribution 
to  the  freight  stations;  and  the  superintendent  of  pas- 
senger transportation,  who  performs  the  same  service 
for  the  passenger  department. 

On  the  Louisville  &  Nashville,  the  superintendent  of 
transportation  represents  the  general  manager  in  the 
transportation  department  and  has  charge  of  car  dis- 
tribution. 

Mechanical  Superintendent 

This  officer's  supei'vision  is  about  the  same  in  the 
matter  of  maintenance  •  of  equipment  in  the  district 
organization  as  that  of  the  general  superintendent  in 
matters  of  transportation.  On  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe  Railroad,  eighteen  master  mechanics  report 
to  four  mechanical  superintendents,  or  from  four  to 
five  master  mechanics  to  each  superintendent,  and  the 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  75 

superintendents  report  to  the  assistant  to  the  operating 
vice  president  in  mechanical  matters. 

District  Engineer 

The  same  statement  may  be  made  as  to  the  district, 
resident,  or  principal  assistant  engineer,  as  he  is  vari- 
ously called.  He  represents  the  engineering  depart- 
ment in  the  district  organization,  ^yhether  he  reports 
to  the  general  superintendent  or  to  the  chief  engineer 
of  maintenance  of  way. 

Signal  Supervisors 

A  signal  supervisor  has  supervision  of  the  mainten- 
ance of  all  signals  in  his  district,  the  division  foremen 
of  signals  reporting  to  him.  He  reports  to  the  general 
superintendent  on  maintenance  and  operation  of  sig- 
nals and  to  the  signal  engineer  on  standards.  His 
jurisdiction  extends  over  the  same  territory  as  that 
of  the  general  superintendent. 

Superintendent  of  Water  Service 

On  many  of  the  western  lines  the  matter  of  a  supply 
of  good  water  for  locomotive  and  shop  use  is  a  serious 
one.  Much  of  the  available  water  contains  ingredients 
which  injure  the  boilers  and  interfere  seriously  with 
efficient  operation.  This  is  true  also  to  a  limited  extent 
of  water  in  other  portions  of  the  countiy. 

Such  water  is  treated  with  various  chemicals  in 
plants  especially  designed  for  the  purpose.  It  of  ion 
involves  the  construction  of  large  water-storage  facilities 
as  well.  The  general  supervision  of  such  work  in  each 
difitrict  is  delegated  to  a  superintendent  of  water 
service  who  reports  to  the  general  superintendent. 


76      li  AIL  WAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
General  Roadmaster — Track  Inspector 

The  duty  of  this  officer  is  the  general  supervision  of 
track  through  close  contact  with  the  division  road- 
masters.  His  jurisdiction  extends  over  a  general  super- 
intendent's district  and  he  reports  usually  to  that 
officer. 

,  Major  Divisions 

The  largest  systems  are  separated  into  major  divi- 
sions which  are  under  the  supervision  of  general  man- 
agers. 

The  New  York  Central  proper  divides  its  5,032  miles 
into  Lines  East  of  Buffalo  and  Lines  West  of  Buffalo, 
with  a  general  manager,  reporting  to  the  vice  president, 
in  charge  of  each  major  division.  The  Lines  East 
include  Districts  1  and  2  and  the  Electric  Zone;  Lines 
West  include  Districts  3  and  4,  each  district  being  in 
charge  of  a  general  superintendent. 

The  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad  (9,140 
miles)  and  the  Chicago  &  North  Western  Eailroad  (8,090 
miles)  divide  their  systems  into  Lines  East  of  the  Mis- 
souri River,  and  Lines  West  of  the  Missouri  River, 
with  a  general  manager  and  assistant  general  manager 
in  charge  of  each.  On  the  Chicago,  Burlington  & 
Quincy  Railroad  there  are  three  general  superintendents 
on  Lines  East,  and  two  on  Lines  West;  on  the  Chicago  & 
North  Western  Railroad  there  are  one  general  super- 
intendent and  two  assistant  general  superintendents  on 
Lines  East,  and  two  general  superintendents  on  Lines 
West. 

On  the  Union  Pacific  System  (7,801  miles),  composed 
of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  (3,611  miles),  Oregon 
Short  Line  (2,062  miles),  and  Oregon- AVashington  Rail- 
road &  Navigation  Company   (2,023  miles),  there  is  a 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  77 

general  manager  in  charge  of  each  constituent  system, 
with  an  assistant  general  manager  on  the  Oregon  Short 
Line  and  two  on  the  Oregon- Washington  Railroad.  Each 
of  the  three  general  managers  has  a  general  super- 
intendent or  a  superintendent  of  transportation  report- 
ing to  him. 

The  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railroad  proper  is 
composed  of  four  major  divisions :  Lines  East  (3,004 
miles),  extending  from  Chicago  to  Newton,  Kan.;  Lines 
West  (3,767  miles),  extending  from  Newton  to  Albu- 
querque, N.  M. ;  Coast  Lines  (2,042  miles),  extending 
from  Albuquerque  to  the  Pacific  Coast  Terminals;  and 
the  Santa  Fe,  Prescott  &  Phoenix^  Lines  (401  miles), 
extending  from  the  Main  Line  to  Phoenix,  Ariz.  Each 
of  these  four  major  divisions  is  in  charge  of  a  general 
manager  with  an  assistant.  The  Lines  East  are  sub- 
divided into  Eastern  District  and  Western  District,  and 
Lines  West  into  Northern  District  and  Southern  Dis- 
trict, each  district  being  in  charge  of  a  general  super- 
intendent as  heretofore  noted. 


General  Manager 

The  general  manager  on  the  Pennsylvania  System  is 
charged  with  ''safe  and  economical  management  of 
the  road,"  which  isf  a  pretty  large  order  for  any  man. 
He  advises  the  operating  vice  president  and  the  board 
of  directors  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  operation 
of  the  property,  and  submits  such  plans  for  improve- 
ments as  his  actual  contact  with  the  working  organi- 
zation suggests. 


'  Extract  from  letter  of  Mr.  E.  P.  Ripley,  president  of  the  A.  T.  A  S.  F. 
System : 

"The  Santa  Fe,  Prescott  &  Plioenix  Lines  were  originally  opcrat»Hl  inde- 
pendently, and  so  far  its  old  organization  has  served  our  purposes  better 
than  an  attempt  to  bring  it  directly  into  the  Coast  Lines." 


78      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

He  formulates  the  rules  and  reg-ulations  governing 
all  operating  officials  and  employees,  and  is  responsible 
for  the  discipline  of  the  entire  department.  He  is 
responsible  for  the  conduct  of  transportation — movement 
of  trains — in  all  cases,  and  in  most  organizations  for 
the  engineering  and  mechanical  departments  through 
the  chief  engineer  and  superintendent  of  motive  power. 
One  of  the  principal,  and  perhaps  the  most  trying,  of 
his  duties  is  the  handling  of  the  labor  question  with 
the  several  labor  organizations  of  railroad  employees. 

He  has  the  power  of  appointment  of  all  officials 
in  his  organization  and  must  in  consequence  maintain 
a  clear,  accurate  record  of  each  officer's  performance 
with  a  view  to  general  efficiency  through  well-considered 
promotion  or  elimination.  He  sometimes  purchases 
machinery,  tools,  equipment,  and  such  material  as  rails, 
but  not  the  ordinary  current  supplies,  which  are  bought 
through  the  purchasing  department. 

As  just  stated,  the  general  manager  in  all  organiza- 
tions is  responsible  for  conducting  transportation;  on 
some  systems  he  has  general  super^dsion  of  the  engineer- 
ing and  mechanical  departments  through  the  chief 
engineer  and  superintendent  of  motive  power  reporting 
directly  to  him;  on  others  these  engineering  and  me- 
chanical departments  are  under  the  control  of  a  chief 
engineer  and  superintendent  of  motive  power  reporting 
to  the  vice  president,  their  operation  being  independent 
of  the  operation  of  the  transportation  department. 

There  are  fundamental  differences  between  certain 
organizations  that  will  be  discussed  in  connection  with 
the  diagrams  of  the  operating  departments  of  two  large 
systems. 

Examples 

Figure  8  is  a  skeleton  diagram  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral organization.     All  the  officers  are  not  shown,  the 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT 


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80      RAILWAY  ORUANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

purpose  of  the  diagram  being  to  indicate  how  the 
officers  in  the  transportation,  maintenance-of-way,  and 
maintenance-of-equipment  divisions  of  the  operating 
department  report. 

In  the  division  organization  it  will  be  noted  from 
the  diagram  that  the  division  superintendent  has  charge 
of  transportation — movement  of  trains  and  signals — 
and  reports  to  the  general  superintendent.  The  division 
engineer  has  charge  of  maintenance  of  way  and  reports 
only  to  the  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way.  The  master 
mechanic  has  charge  of  maintenance  of  equipment  and 
reports  direct  to  the  superintendent  of  motive  power. 
That  is,  there  are  three  officers  in  charge  of  the 
division  organization,  each  of  whom  reports  to  his  own 
department. 

In  the  district  organization  the  general  superintendent 
is  in  charge  of  transportation  and  reports  to  the 
assistant  general  manager  of  transportation.  The 
engineer  of  maintenance  of  way  is  in  charge  of  that 
work  and  reports  to  the  assistant  general  manager  of 
maintenance  of  way.  The  division  superintendent  of 
motive  power  in  charge  of  maintenance  of  equipment 
reports  to  the  superintendent  of  motive  power.  In  the 
district,  as  in  the  division  organization,  there  are 
three  officers  in  charge,  each  of  whom  reports  to  his 
own  department. 

That  is,  through  the  entire  operating  organization 
the  division  of  authority  and  supervision  is  on  the  basis 
of  the  character  of  the  work.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
maintenance  of  equipment  is  composed  of  two  separate 
divisions,  one  having  charge  of  motive  power  (locomo- 
tives) and  the  other  of  rolling  stock  (cars). 

The  engineering  organization,  except  for  the  engineers 
connected  with  maintenance,  is  entirely  separated  fronj 
the  operating  department  except  in  the  headquarter 
staff. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT 


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82      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

This  is  a  strictly  departmental  form  of  organization 
throughout. 

Fig-ure  9  is  a  skeleton  diagram  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Fe  operating  organization.  Its  purpose  is  to 
show  how  the  officers  in  the  transportation,  maintenance- 
of-way,  and  maintenance-of-equipment  divisions  of  this 
department  report,  and  for  that  reason  all  the  officers 
of  the  department  are  not  shown. 

In  this  organization  the  trainmaster,  master  mechanic, 
division  engineer,  signal  foreman,  foreman  of  bridges 
and  buildings,  and  roadmaster  report  to  the  division 
superintendent.  That  is,  he  has  supervision  over  trans- 
portation, maintenance  of  way,  and  maintenance  of 
equipment  and  is  in  consequence  a  general  manager 
on  his  o"«Ti  division. 

In  the  district  organization,  the  division  superintend- 
ents (transportation),  the  mechanical  superintendent 
(maintenance  of  equipment),  the  district  engineer 
(maintenance  of  way),  and  the  signal  supervisor  report 
to  the  general  superintendent,  who  is  in  consequence  a 
general  manager  in  his  district. 

The  general  superintendent  and  the  chief  engineer  (of 
major  or  grand  divisions)  report  to  the  general  man- 
ager. 

This  is  a  strictly  divisional  form  of  organization 
throughout. 

The  master  mechanic  and  the  mechanical  superin- 
tendent, although  reporting  to  the  division  and  general 
superintendents  on  operating  matters,  are  responsible 
to  the  mechanical  department  as  to  all  matters  relating 
to  the  standards  it  establishes.  The  same  is  true  as  to 
the  engineers  and  signalmen  in  relation  to  the  engineer- 
ing department. 


CHAPTER  M:I 
operation— conducting  transportation 

Freight  Traffic 

Since  the  term  transportation  contemplates  the  receipt 
and  deliveiy  of  freight  and  passengers,  loading  and 
unloading  freight  from  and  into  cars,  assembling  these 
cars  into  trains  and  moving  the  trains  over  the  division, 
it  seems  logical  to  follow  through  the  activities  of  the 
department  in  the  order  in  which  they  come  in  contact 
with  the  shipping  and  traveling  public. 

The  first  officer  of  the  organization  with  whom  the 
shipping  public  comes  in  contact  is  the  station  agent, 
who  with  his  assistant  receires  or  delivers  the  freight, 
handles  passengers,  and  supervises  weighing,  loading, 
and  unloading  freight  from  and  into  the  cars. 

Local  Agent 

The  local  agent  is  the  man  on  the  railroad  with  whom  the 
public  comes  most  in  contact  and  the  opinion  his  neighbors  have 
of  him  is  apt  to  become  their  opinion  of  the  company.  His  reali- 
zation of  this  will  inspire  him  with  a  determination  to  maintain 
the  good  name  both  of  himself  and  of  his  company.  Uniform 
courtesy  in  dealing  with  the  public  should  be  the  rule  of  every 
railroad  officer  and  employee,  but  it  is  of  supreme  importance 
to  the  local  agent,  for  discourteous  treatment  may  lead  a  shipper 
to  give  his  business  to  a  competing  line  or  to  short-haul  that  of 
the  man  who  has  offended  him. 

He  must,  however,  be  a  versatile  man.  In  addition  to  having 
the  qualities  which  make  for  success  in  the  management  of  a 
general  merchandise  store  he  must  usually  be  a  telegraph  opera- 
tor, a  rough  and  ready  lawyer,  a  first-aid  surgeon,  a  substitute 

83 


84       RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

for  a  certified  public  accountant,  a  pretty  good  bank  president,  a 
l)olitical  economist,  a  peacemaker,  a  captain  of  men  in  action, 
and  an  organizer  of  victory.  He  must  interpret  and  do  his  best 
to  enforce  a  multitude  of  detailed  and  regulating  authority  as 
well  as  those  which  originate  at  the  railroad  headquarters.  He 
must  have  a  patience  and  good  humor  which  will  qualify  him 
for  a  robe  and  a  harp  and  a  seat  in  heaven  alongside  of  Job 
himself,  and,  with  all  this,  he  must  be  a  self-respecting  citizen, 
a  church  member,  and  rear  a  family  on  a  modest  wage. 

There  are  three  requisites  for  advancement  in  railroad  service 
— loyalty,  efficiency  in  your  present  job,  and  preparedness  for 
larger  responsibilities.  Efficiency  and  preparedness  for  higher 
place  go  together,  for  that  man  will  be  most  efficient  in  his  pres- 
ent job  who  is  not  content  with  mere  mechanical  performance 
of  his  duties,  but  who  has  an  intelligent  understanding  of  them 
in  their  relation  to  the  service  as  a  whole,  and  who  has  qualified 
to  take  over  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  his  immediate 
superior  on  a  moment's  notice.  Applying  this  to  the  local 
agency,  it  follows  not  only  that  the  agent  should  be  a  man 
measuring  up  to  these  requirements  for  advancement,  but  that 
he  should  carry  out  the  principle  in  the  organization  of  his 
force/ 

The  station  agent,  when  an  operator,  is  to  that  extent 
under  the  supervision  of  the  dispatcher.  In  addition, 
he  reports  to  the  auditing  department  in  all  matters 
relating  to  the  collection  of  freight  and  passenger 
charges,  and  to  the  traffic  department  in  all  matters 
relating  to  the  securing  of  freight.  He  supervises  the 
loading  and  unloading  of  all  freight  (and  baggage,  except 
at  large  terminal  stations),  receipts  for  it,  collects  all 
charges  due,  and  makes  the  way-bills  for  its  proper  for- 
warding. In  connection  with  passenger  traffic  he  sells 
tickets,  checks  baggage,  and  collects  excess  charges  on 
it  when  due.  He  is  responsible  for  the  care  and  main- 
tenance of  the  station  buildings  and  grounds. 

He  reports  to  the  dispatcher  daily,  by  wire,  the 
various  cars  on  the  tracks  at  his  station.  To  the  audit- 
ing department  he   reports   daily  or  weekly   the   total 


*  Address  by  Fairfax  Harrison,  president  Southern  Eailwav,  .June  20,  1916. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  85 

amount  of  freight  charges  on  all  way-bills  received  at 
or  forwarded  from  his  office,  distinguishing  local  from 
interline  traffic;  if  located  at  a  junction,  on  all  bills 
for  freight  in  which  his  road  is  an  intcnnediate  carrier. 
He  makes  also  a  report  on  milling  and  cleaning  grain 
in  transit  and  various  summaries  and  monthly  reports, 
including  statements  of  switching  and  car-service 
charges.  Agents  at  coaling  stations  report  to  the  fuel 
accountant,  separately,  all  coal  received,  delivered  to 
engines,  and  rebilled.  The  agent  reports  to  the  claim 
agent  any  fact  as  to  the  condition  of  a  shipment  or  fonn 
of  a  way-bill  that  may  give  rise  to  a  claim.  Being  held 
responsible  for  the  collection  of  the  correct  amount  of 
all  charges  on  freight  received  at  his  station,  he  obtains 
a  ruling  from  the  traffic  department  or  auditor  on  ques- 
tions of  a  doubtful  classification  or  rate  before  settling 
on  way-bills  for  goods  received  or  on  prepaid  freight; 
he  reports  any  cars  at  his  station  in  bad  order  to  the 
trainmaster. 

Where  the  traffic  department  has  no  solicitor  in  the 
city  or  town  in  Avhich  he  is  located  he  acts  in  that 
capacity,  advising  the  traffic  department  of  proposed  or 
possible  movements  of  both  in  and  out  bound  freight 
at  his  station,  since  through  his  intimate  relations  with 
the  shippers  he  is  often  well  advised  of  much  pros- 
pective business. 

He  reports  to  the  legal  department  the  receipt  of 
legal  notices  or  garnishments  of  employees'  wages.  He 
reports  to  the  superintendent  all  untoward  events,  as 
sudden  and  violent  storms  or  floods,  fires  in  his  city,  or 
destruction  of  company  property. 

His  relation  not  only  with  the  general  public  but 
with  the  various  other  departments  is  more  intimate 
than  that  of  any  other  railroad  employee. 


86      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
Freight  Stations  and  Facilities 

The  freight  station  service  at  terminals  is  under  the 
direction  of  the  agent.  At  large  stations  the  passenger 
business  is  entirely  separated  from  the  freight,  and 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  stationmaster.  The 
agent's  duties  relate  to  freight-house  and  team- track 
operation  and  to  the  switching  of  cars  to  and  from 
various  locations  under  his  immediate  jurisdiction. 

A  description  of  the  handling  of  out-freight  at  the 
Illinois  Central  South  Water  Street  station,  at  Chicago, 
is  given  in  Raihvay  Organization  and  Working  by  Pro- 
fessor E.  R.  Dewsnup,  which  gives  a  very  clear  idea 
of  the  work  and  organization  involved  in  freight-house 
operation.  The  following  matter  is  written  from  informa- 
tion contained  in  that  work. 

The  freight-house  proper  is  of  brick,  one  thousand 
feet  long  and  forty-eight  feet  wide ;  extending  from  it  to 
the  south  is  a  covered  platform  six  hundred  feet  long 
and  twenty-five  feet  wide.  The  freight-house  proper  has 
forty-three  receiving  doors,  in  front  of  each  of  which  is 
located  a  five-ton-capacity  scale  for  weighing  freight 
received  from  the  tail-gates  of  trucks  and  wagons.  The 
offices  of  the  receiving  clerks  are  so  arranged  that  each 
office  takes  care  of  two  doors. 

There  are  seven  tracks  along  one  side  of  the  house 
and  platform  with  a  total  capacity  of  238  cars.  For 
convenience  in  operation  the  house  and  platform  are 
divided  into  three  sections,  each  a  little  more  than  five 
hundred  feet  in  length,  the  point  of  division  being  called 
a  relay.  One  man  with  three  or  four  helpers  is  sta- 
tioned at  each  relay  point  to  take  care  of  loaded  trucks 
moving  between  the  three  sections.  The  object  is  to 
confine  the  truckers  to  the  section  to  which  they  are 
assigned,  eliminating  the  necessity  of  a  truckman's 
trucking  his  load  extreme  distances;  the  trucker  brings 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  87 

his  load  to  a  relay,  leaves  bis  loaded  tiiick,  and  takes 
back  a  truck  destined  to  a  car  in  bis  section. 


Freight-House  Organization 

Tbe  organization  of  this  bouse-force  consists  of  tbe 
following : 

A  general  foreman  supervising  botb  tbe  out-bound 
and  in-bound  freigbt-bouses. 

An  out-bound  foreman  baving  cbarge  of  tbat  freigbt- 
bouse  and  reporting  to  tbe  general  foreman,  witli  an 
assistant  out-bound  foreman  under  his  immediate  juris- 
diction. 

Two  relay  men  with  four  assistants  handling  freight 
at  tbe  divisions  of  the  three  sections. 

Thirty-four  receiving  clerks  and  thirty-four  scale  men 
at  receiving  doors. 

A  routing  clerk  assisting  the  receiving  clerk  in  proper 
routing. 

Thirty  stowTnen,  one  to  each  seven  or  run  of  cars. 
These  stowmen  place  the  metal  bridges  or  runways  and 
fasten  tbe  doors  of  cars  when  loaded  or  at  the  end 
of  the  day. 

A  sufficient  number  of  truckers  (the  number  varying 
with  tbe  amount  of  business)  divided  into  gangs  of 
three  and  distributed  to  various  receiving  doors. 

Two  messenger  boys  carrying  shipping  tickets  from 
tbe  receiving  clerks  to  the  office  to  be  rated  and  billed. 

Two  carders  and  sealers  who  card  all  cars  on 
house-tracks  and  seal  them  at  tbe  close  of  the  day,  the 
actual  sealing  being  done  by  a  force  of  fifteen  men  at 
night.  Tbe  sealers  record  the  number  and  kind  of 
seals  applied  to  the  various  doors  and  windows  of  the 
car. 

A  special  policeman  on  tbe  driveway  directing  team- 
sters to  proper  receiving  doors. 


88      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  average  daily  business  handled  by  the  force  is 
given  as  2,000,000  pounds  of  out-bound  freight,  transfer 
freight  averaging  1,400,000  pounds.  « 

Team  Track  Organization 

For  the  accommodation  of  shipments  that  move  in 
carload  quantities  and  less-than-carload  shipments  of 
such  articles  as  it  is  inexpedient  to  try  to  handle 
through  the  freight-house,  team  tracks  are  provided 
with  space  between  them  for  a  roadway  over  which 
trucks  or  teams  may  be  driven  and  in  which  they 
may  stand  while  loading  and  unloading  cars.  The 
switching  crews  usually  ^'pull"  these  tracks  two  or 
three  times  a  day,  taking  out  loaded  cars  for  out-bound 
movement  and  placing  empties  or  loaded  cars  to  be 
unloaded  or  loaded  as  the  case  may  be,  as  required  and 
directed  by  the  agent.  As  a  general  rule  the  shippers 
do  their  own  loading  and  unloading  at  such  tracks. 

The  agent  or  delegated  subordinate  attends  to  the  way- 
billing  of  out-bound  cars  and  the  collection  of  charges 
on  in-bound  cars,  keeping  a  record  of  the  movement  of 
all  such  cars.  The  collection  of  charges  and  trans- 
mission of  money  to  the  treasurer,  the  payment  of  time 
checks  for  station  employees  laid  off,  the  preparation 
of  drafts  for  foreign  lines,  and  such  duties,  are  attended 
to  by  the  cashier  who  reports  to  the  agent. 

Office  Organization 

The  preparation  of  way-bills,  orders,  and  reports  is 
divided  among  the  office  force,  the  total  number  of 
clerks  assigned  to  this  particular  work  of  course  being 
proportioned  to  the  volume  of  business.  Usually  in 
large  offices  certain  clerks  are  assigned  to  the  way- 
billing  of  particular  classes  of  traffic  such  as  merchan- 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  89 

dise,  live  stock,  coal,  company  freight,  etc.  Other  clerks 
are  assigned  to  the  making  of  freight  bills  against  con- 
signees, making  bills  for  car  service,  switching,  and 
incidental  service,  and  sending  notices  to  consignee  of 
the  arrival  of  freight.  Still  others  make  abstracts  of 
way-bills  required  for  local  and  for  interline  shipments 
and  card  way-bills,  statements  of  company  material, 
and  numerous   other  reports,  bills,   and   orders. 

The  statement  of  work  to  be  done  and  subjects  to  be 
covered  indicates  the  character  of  the  organization 
required,  which,  as  stated,  varies  with  character  of  the 
traffic  and  its  volume.  At  small  stations,  an  agent  with 
one  or  two  assistants  may  perform  at  different  times 
all  the  duties  relating  to  the  receipt  and  forwarding  of 
freight,  while  at  large  stations  the  agent  may  require 
large  forces  of  clerks  in  the  preparation  of  the  various 
bills,  records,  and  reports  required. 

Yardmaster 

This  is  the  agent  having  such  service  as  the  loading 
of  the  property  and  sealing  of  the  cars.  It  is  then 
necessary  to  place  these  cars  in  vaiious  trains  in  order 
that  they  may  reach  their  billed  destination  or  junction 
point  at  the  earliest  possible  date.  This  to  a  large 
extent  devolves  upon  the  yardmaster. 

The  yardmaster  is  in  charge  of  all  switching  opera- 
tions within  defined  yard  limits,  the  assembling  of  out- 
going and  breaking  up  of  incoming  trains.  He  super- 
vises the  assembling  of  various  cars  into  trains  of  the 
several  classes  to  which  they  belong.  That  is,  he  segre- 
gates fast  freight,  slow  freight,  and  local  freight  into 
trains  operated  for  these  several  kinds  of  freight  service. 
The  cars  are  divided  into  their  various  kinds,  those 
going  toward  any  other  trains  of  different  classes,  those 
to  be  switched  to  freight  sheds,  industrial  tracks  or  team- 


90      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

tracks,  those  to  be  forwarded  over  connecting  lines,  and 
those  to  be  sent  to  local  stations  by  intermediate  sta- 
tions. 

Terminal  Yard  Operation 

Terminal  yard  operation  is  under  the  control  of  the 
general  yardmaster  and,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
yard,  he  may  be  aided  by  several  assistant  yardmasters. 
The  work  involves  the  handling  of  trains  and  cars  and 
making  proper  records  relating  to  them.  This  consists 
of  receiving  and  forwarding  trains  and  contains  for  the 
yardman  the  following  units,  which  he  must  handle: 

Cars  (1)  to  be  forwarded  in  other  trains,  (2)  to  be 
held  for  orders,  (3)  for  freight-houses,  (4)  for  team 
tracks,  (5)  for  private  or  industrial  sidings,  (6)  for  con- 
necting lines,  (7)  for  storage,  (8)  company  material, 
(9)  those  for  weighing  or  reweighing,  and  (10)  the 
transferrance  of  the  contents  of  bad  order  cars  into 
sound  equipment. 

In  addition  to  cars  received  from  incoming  trains, 
he  has  charge  of  others  received  from  the  terminal 
freight  houses,  team  tracks,  and  industrial  tracks  of  the 
company  as  well  as  the  cars  received  from  connecting 
lines. 

In  making  up  trains,  the  factors  to  be  considered  are : 
destination;  character  of  freight  as  fast,  time,  or  slow 
freight;  character  of  trains  as  local,  through,  or  special. 
The  routing  rules,  train  schedules,  and  methods  of 
handling  special-service  cars  determine  the  trains  in 
which  cars  shall  move. 

In  order  to  facilitate  this  breaking  up,  classifying,  and 
maldng  up  of  trains  and  cars,  large  yards  are  provided 
with  the  following  sub-yards,  connected  one  with  the 
other : 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  91 

Inbound  yard 
Classification  yard 
Outbound  yard 

Repair  yard  (near  classification  yard) 
Storage  yard   (alongside  of  classification 
or  outbound  yard) 

The  cards  showing  the  classification  of  the  car, 
attached  by  the  carder  in  the  inbound  yard,  furnish  the 
information  required  in  disposing  of  all  cars.  These 
cards  show  in  addition  the  date  of  arrival  of  the  car 
in  the  yard,  contents,  and  consignee,  which  information 
affords  a  means  for  avoiding  undue  delay  as  the  yard- 
master  on  inspection  will  give  special  attention  to  cars 
whose  cards  indicate  undue  ''age"  in  the  yard. 

Between  the  inbound  and  classification  yards  there  is 
in  many  of  the  more  modern  yards  a  hump.  The  switch 
engines  push  the  cars  over  this  hump  and  they  move 
by  gravity  to  designated  tracks  in  the  classification 
yard.  A  description  of  the  operation  of  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  &  Quincy  yard  at  Galesburg,  111.,  in  the 
Railway  Age  Gazette  of  July  3,  1914,  reads : 

Hump  engine  foreman  cuts  the  cars  off  and  works  from  ten 
to  fourteen  hump  riders,  with  one  switch  tender  at  the  divide 
(hump),  one  at  the  cross-over  and  one  on  each  lead  (switch  for 
different  tracks  in  classification  yard).  Cars  must  be  stopped 
at  least  two  feet  from  cars  standing  on  track  they  ride  in  on. 
This  saves  damage  to  cars.  The  yard  is  provided  with  suffi- 
cient fifty-pound  skid  shoes  (to  slacken  speed  of  car)  to  catch 
cars  that  get  away  from  the  ridel's. 

After  being  separated  into  the  several  classes  as  indi- 
cated by  the  attached  cards,  the  cars  are  taken  by  switch 
engines  to  their  various  destinations.  Those  intended 
for  out-going  home-line  trains  going  to  the  out-bound 
yard  are  transferred  to  the  connecting  lines  and  others 
to  freight  houses,  industrial,  and  team  tracks,  or  repair 
and  storage  tracks. 


92      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Some  figures  in  regard  to  the  number  of  cars  handled 
in  the  Galesburg  yard  will  be  interesting:  The  track 
capacity  of  the  yard  is  8,979  cars ;  there  are  72  different 
classifications  of  cars;  all  cars  leaving  the  yard  are 
made  up  in  the  outgoing  train  in  destination  order ;  there 
are  76  regular  passenger  and  130  freight  trains  per  24 
hours  or  an  average  train  movement  every  7  minutes; 
there  are  normally  32  switch  engines  at  work  in  the  yard ; 
the  record  car  movement  through  the  yard  in  24  hours 
is  7,300  cars  and  an  average  of  6,800  cars  per  24  hours 
for  a  90-day  period. 

The  assistant  superintendent  of  the  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton &  Quincy  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  has  this  to  say  in 
regard  to  yard  organization  :- 

The  organization  of  forces  should  provide  for  a  general  yard- 
master,  both  day  and  night,  assistant  yardmasters  day  and  night 
on  the  hump,  and  (in  city  yards),  an  inside  or  desk  yardmaster 
days  and  an  outside  yardmaster  nights,  a  chief  clerk  day  and 
night,  bill,  manifest,  and  diverting  clerks,  and  car  checkers. 
The  assistant  yardmaster  should  be  in  charge  of  the  hump  and 
trimmer  engines  and  the  engines  in  the  departure  yard.  The 
desk  yardmaster  should  be  in  telephone  communication  with  all 
parts  of  the  yards  and  departments  keeping  in  direct  touch  with 
them  and  should  adjust  the  slack  and  congestion  in  the  different 
yards,  directing  the  power  from  one  direct  to  another. 

It  is  evident  from  this  description  of  the  work  to 
be  done  and  the  example  given  of  the  switching  crews 
employed  in  the  Galesburg  yard  that  a  very  thorough 
supervision  of  yard  work  is  necessaiy  to  prevent  inter- 
ference between  crews  and  consequent  loss  of  time. 
Certain  crews  are  usually  given  the  same  assignment; 
that  is,  switching  the  industrial  tracks  in  a  certain  dis- 
trict, or  team  tracks,  inbound  and  outbound  freight- 
houses,  elevators,  or  transfer  of  cars  to  certain  con- 


■  Article  by  Mr.  O.  C.  Hill,  assistant  superintendent,  Chicago,  Burling- 
ton &  Quincy  Railroad,  in  the  Railway  Age  Gazette,  August  21,  1914. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  93 

nections.  A  system  of  dispatching  carried  on  over  the 
telephone  is  usually  necessary  to  adjust  the  work  of 
the  switching  crews  to  a  business  which  varies  in  char- 
acter and  volume  from  day  to  day. 

Train  Dispatching 

The  cars,  having  been  assembled  into  trains  at  various 
classification  yards  under  jurisdiction  of  the  yardmaster, 
are  now  ready  to  go  forward.  The  officer  directly  con- 
cerned with  the  movement  of  trains  over  the  division 
is  the  trainmaster,  whose  duties  consist  principally 
in  watching  and  studying^ the  work  of  trainmen,  judging 
their  fitness,  and  observing  locomotive  performance  in 
actual  service.  In  consequence,  much  the  larger  part 
of  his  time  is  spent  outside  along  the  roads  under  oper- 
ation. His  office  duties  are  of  considerably  less 
importance. 

He  directs  all  train  operations  through  the  train  dis- 
patcher. His  connection  with  the  mechanical  department 
as  to  locomotive  performance  is  necessarily  intimate  as 
well  as  with  the  division  engineer  with  regard  to  the 
condition  of  track. 

One  feature  of  operation  which  usually  occupies  a  very 
large  portion  of  his  time,  particuhirly  when  the  move- 
ment of  traffic  is  at  or  above  nonual,  is  the  condition 
of  the  yards  at  terminals  and  important  junction  points. 
The  avoidance  of  blockades  in  such  situations  is  one  of 
the  particular  duties  with  which  he  is  charged,  and 
any  tendency  toward  sucli  blockade  conditions  is  reported 
at  once  to  his  superintendent.  The  trainmaster,  in 
conjunction'  with  the  agent,  also  has  charge  of  all 
switching  crews  through  the  yardmaster. 

On  some  roads,  notably  the  Union  Pacific,  such  station 
agents  as  are  telegraph  operators,  and  all  other  tele- 
graph   operators,    report   to    the    trniiimaslfM-.      This    is 


94      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

true  also  of  the  chief  dispatcher,  dispatching  operators, 
and  other  division  office  telegraph  operators.  It  is  to 
be  noted  also  that  enginemen  and  trainmen  report  to 
the  trainmaster  on  matters  relating  to  train  operation; 
in  addition,  the  enginemen  report  directly  to  the  road 
foremen  of  engines  and  the  engine-house  foremen  and 
certain  train  conductors  report  to  the  auditing  and 
treasury  departments. 

The  Chief  Train  Dispatcher. — Orders  for  the  actual 
movement  of  trains  are  given  by  the  chief  train  dis- 
patcher who  is  held  directly  responsible  for  their  safety. 
In  this  he  is  assisted  by  subordinate  train  dispatchers  or 
dispatcher  operators,  each  dispatcher  taking  an  eight- 
hour  '*  trick." 

The  Train  Dispatcher  reports  to  the  chief  dispatcher. 
He  issues  orders  for  train  movements  over  the  particular 
division  to  which  he  may  be  assigned  and  sees  that  they 
are  properly  transmitted  and  recorded,  keeping  a  record 
showing  the  time  when  each  train  passes  each  telegraph 
station,  the  time  when  each  dispatcher  goes  on  and  off 
duty,  and  important  facts  incidental  to  train  move- 
ments. He  is  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  office 
in  the  absence  of  the  chief  dispatcher. 

The  Telegraph  Operator  generally  reports  to  the  chief 
dispatcher  and  in  his  absence  to  the  train  dispatcher. 
At  larger  stations  an  operator  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  agent  or  stationmaster,  and  at  yards  of  the 
yardmaster. 

All  operators  along  the  division  report  and  keep  and 
register  the  exact  time  of  the  arrival,  departure,  or 
passing  of  each  train,  giving  its  engine  and  train 
number.  This  information  is  tabulated  as  received,  and 
the  location  of  moving  trains  is  thus  known  at  the  dis- 
patcher's office  at  all  times  by  telegraph  or  telephone 
or  direct  through  the  operators  located  along  the  line, 
the   meeting  points    of   all   trains    often   dictating   the 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  95 

speed    at    which    trains    are    to    run    between    certain 
designated  stations. 

Through  call  boys  he  notifies  the  trainmen  to  report 
for  duty  and  is  to  this  extent  charged  with  the  respon- 
sibility of  having  full  train  crew^s  in  advance  of  the 
time  of  departure  of  trains. 

He  receives  reports  from  the  operators  and  agents 
of  the  number  of  all  loaded,  loading,  and  empty  cars 
of  all  classes  of  his  division,  reporting  in  tuni  to  the 
car  accountant  and  superintendent. 

The  Lineman  reports  to  the  chief  dispatcher  and  con- 
forms to  the  instructions  of  the  line  foreman.  He  inspects 
the  wires,  poles,  and  insulation  and  makes  all  necessary 
repairs  to  telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  calling  on  the 
track  foreman  for  assistance  when  necessar}\ 

The  Engineer  reports  to  the  road  foreman  of  engines 
and  is  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  trainmaster  as  to 
train  movement  and  stations,  of  the  yardmasters  at 
stations  and  yards,  and  of  the  conductor  as  to  the  stop- 
ping and  starting  of  trains.  At  the  engine-house  he  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  engine-house  foreman  to  w^hom 
he  reports  at  the  end  of  each  trip  as  to  the  engine's  con- 
dition. Pie  calls  the  indications  of  signals  to  the  fireman 
and  head  brakeman. 

The  Fireman  reports  to  the  road  foreman  of  engines 
and  is  subject  to  the  orders  of  trainmasters  as  to  train 
movements.  At  the  engine-house,  he  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  engine-house  foreman  and  while  on  duty 
obeys  the  orders  of  the  engineman. 

The  Freight  Conductor  reports  to  the  trainmaster  and 
is  subject  to  the  orders  of  the  station  or  yardmaster 
within  yard  limits.  He  is  responsible  for  the  movement, 
safety,  and  care  of  his  train  and  the  conduct  of  his 
trainmen.  He  must  show  his  train  orders  to  his  engine- 
men  and  brakemen.  He  is  charged  with  the  inspection 
of  his  train  and  all  cars  therein  before  starting  and  as 


96      RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

frequently  during  his  trip  as  circumstances  allow.    He  is 
not  allowed  to  move  cars  without  proper  way-billing. 

The  Freight  Brakeman  reports  to  the  trainmaster  and 
is  subject  to  the  orders  of  conductors  and  yardmasters. 
On  local  freight  trains  he  assists  in  loading  and  unload- 
ing freight.  He  is  required  to  inspect  the  brakes,  lad- 
ders, running  board,  and  all  mechanical  appliances  he 
uses,  and  is  responsible  for  the  care  and  display  of 
signals.  The  rear  brakeman  protects  the  rear  and 
the  head  brakeman  the  front  of  the  train  by  flagging 
against  other  trains. 


1   D*y  Fo.«m.o  1 

Nfoht  foreman 

Da,  Foreman 

Nloht  Foreman 

1               1 

r^'So".' 

Day  and  Night 


I 


Fio.  10. — Org/\nization  of  the  Chicago  Paaaeuger  Terminal— -Chicago  &  NorthweBtern  Railway 


^ 


CHAPTER  VIII 

OPERATION-CXJNDUCTING  TRANSPORTATION-Continned 

Passenger  Traffic 

At  the  more  important  centers  throughout  this 
country,  passenger  and  freight  traffic  are  segregated  and 
operated  as  distinct  units  of  the  service. 

In  large  metropolitan  centers,  passenger  traffic  has 
assumed  such  proportions  as  to  necessitate  the  erection 
and  construction  of  the  most  elaborate  terminals.  The 
number  of  passenger  trains  moved  into  and  out  of  the 
terminals  is  so  large  that  separate  supervision  for  pas- 
senger-train operation  is  required.  The  operation  of  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railway  passenger  terminal 
in  Chicago  is  typical  of  such  a  condition,  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  organization  and  methods  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate this  feature  of  terminal  operation. 

Chicago  is  the  eastern  terminus  of  ten  thousand  miles 
of  this  system.  It  was  the  first  railroad  constructed  in 
the  West,  the  first  construction  (in  1848)  being  that  of  its 
present  Galena  division.  Over  its  own  lines  it  now 
reaches  the  northwestern  states  and  in  connection  with 
other  systems  touches  all  important  points  west,  north- 
west, and  southwest  of  Chicago  as  far  as  the  Pacific 
Coast,  which  necessitates  the  operation  of  a  veiy  largo 
umber  of  trains.  In  addition  it  operates  a  very 
extensive  suburban  passenger  business  between  Chicago 
and  outlining  points. 

The  total  number  of  scheduled  passenger  trains  is 
315    daily — the    normal    passenger    movement    through 

97 


98      KAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  station  being  G0,000  daily.  During  a  strike  on  the 
surface  and  elevated  lines  of  the  city,  however,  the  total 
number  of  trains  reached  as  high  as  500  daily  with 
150,000  passengers  handled. 

During  the  periods  of  normal  maximum  traffic — seven 
to  nine  A.  M.  and  five  to  seven  P.  M. — there  is  a  train 
movement  at  intervals  of  100  seconds  (1  2/3  minutes). 
The  entire  terminal  operation  is  under  the  direction 
of  the  superintendent  of  passenger  terminals. 

Train  Operation 

The  train  crews  and  the  yardmaster  report  to  the 
trainmaster.  The  principal  work  of  the  switching 
crew  is  the-  handling  of  baggage  cars,  mail  cars,  and 
express  cars  between  the  points  of  loading  or  unload- 
ing and  the  trains  in  which  they  move.  Some  trains  are 
handled  wholly  by  the  switch  engine,  but  usually  trains 
between  the  passenger  terminal  and  the  coach  yards 
are  handled  by  their  own  engines. 

The  terminal  is  provided  with  its  own  telautograph^ 
and  telephone  service.  By  means  of  the  former  the 
different  departments  at  the  station  are  advised  at  all 
times  of  the  position  of  all  trains  moving  into  the 
terminal.  Eecording  instruments  are  located  in  the 
superintendent 's  office,  on  the  floors  of  the  waiting  rooms 
for  train  announcers,  in  the  dispatcher's  office,  mail,  bag- 
gage, and  express  rooms,  and  at  other  points. 


'  A  message  written  in  long  hand  at  any  sending  instrument  is  repro- 
duced at  all  receiving  instruments  in  long  hand.  A  sample  record  reads 
"321/2,"  which  means  train  No.  321  is  arriving  on  track  Xo.  2.  Any  special 
feature  in  regard  to  a  train  may  also  be  sent  as  "321/2  with  500  sacks  of 
mail  for  L.  S.  &  M,  S.,"  which  means  that  train  No.  321  arriving  on  track 
No.  2  carries  500  sacks  of  mail  for  the  Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern 
Railroad's  eastbound  train,  which  is  advice  needed  by  the  employees  operat- 
ing the  belt  conveyors  from  the  lower  floor  and  by  the  laborers  and  truck- 
men engaged  in  handling  and  transporting  it  promptly  to  the  terminal  of 
that  road. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  99 

The  telephone  is  used  in  comminiicatioiis  among  vari- 
ous employees  and  as  a  reserve  in  case  of  temporary 
derangement  of  the  telautograph. 

The  following  instructions  to  gatemen,  conductors,  and 
towermen  are  printed  in  the  terminal  time  table  and 
explain  the  method  of  train  operation  within  the  ter- 
minal limits : 


Conductors,  Gatemen,  and  Towermen' s  tSignal  System  for 
Starting  of  Trains 

The  signal  system  for  starting  trains  is  composed  of  two  lights 
and  a  push  button  at  regular  intervals  on  train  shed  posts  for 
use  of  conductors,  two  lights  and  a  push  button  near  gate  for 
use  of  gatemen,  and  tliree  lights  and  a  push  button  on  train 
indicator  board  at  Lake  Street  tower-  for  use  of  towermen. 

The  signaling  system  is  used  for  all  departing  train  move- 
ments from  the  depot,  whether  scheduled,  extra,  or  empty. 

For  Departing  Through  Trai)i.s. — One  minute  before  the 
departing  time  of  a  through  train,  conductor  will  press 
push  button  nearest  the  track  from  which  the  train  is 
about  to  leave.  This  will  cause  the  top  light  to  appear 
in  towermen  and  gatemen 's  indicator  and  is  an  indication  that 
the  train  is  ready  to  depart  on  time.  When  towerman  is  ready 
to  handle  train  he  will  press  a  push  button,  which  will  cause  the 
second  light  to  appear  in  the  tower  and  gate  indicators  and  top 
light  in  conductor's  indicator.  At  departing  time  of  train  the 
gateman  will  close  gate  and  immediately  press  his  push  button, 
which  will  cause  the  lower  light  to  appear  in  conductor's  and 
towerman 's  indicators.  This  is  an  indication  to  conductor  and 
towerman  that  all  passengers  have  passed  through  the  gate  and 
gate  is  closed.  The  train  may  then  proceed,  upon  proper  signal 
from  the  tower. 

For  Departing  Suburban  Trains. — Ten  seconds  l)efore  leaving 
time  conductor  will  press  button  nearest  to  track  from  wliich 
train  is  about  to  leave.  This  will  cause  the  top  light  to  appear 
in  towerman 's  train  indicator  board  and  is  an  indication  to 
towerman  that  train  is  ready  to  depart  on  time.  No  further 
signaling  is  necessary  to  complete  the  operation  for  departing 
suburban  trains,  which  will  depart  at  leaving  time. 

For  Trains  Backing  Out  of  Depot. — Before  train  can  be 
started  to  back  out  of  depot,  the  person  in  charge  of  movement 


Located  at  head  of  terminal  yunl. 


100    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

will  press  button  nearest  the  track  on  which  train  is  standing. 
This  will  cause  the  top  light  to  appear  in  towerman's  indicator. 
In  no  case  will  the  train  start  to  back  out  until  towerman  presses 
button,  which  will  cause  the  top  light  to  appear  in  conductor's 
indicator.  Immediately  after  this  top  light  appears  in  conduc- 
tor's signal  box,  back-up  movement  will  be  started. 

In  the  event  there  are  two  trains  on  the  same  track  ready  to 
back  out  at  the  same  time,  the  train  first  entering  the  trainshed 
will  not  move  until  signal  operation  of  train  last  arriving  has 
been  completed,  and  train  started  to  back  out,  at  which  time 
train  first  arriving  may  follow. 

In  the  event  an  indication  is  not  received  promptly  from  the 
tower,  the  conductor  or  person  in  charge  of  train  will  go  to  the 
nearest  telephone  and  be  ready  to  answer  it  if  the  bell  rings,  and 
if  delay  becomes  considerable  he  may  call  up  tower  and  ask  for 
instructions. 

Telautograph  and  Tower  Signal  Board. — The  telauto- 
graph  is  situated  at  the  extreme  left  along  the  wall.  The 
two  sending  instruments,  upon  which  the  levermen  write, 
are  on  the  table.  Another  small  receiving  telautograph 
is  on  the  table  directly  under  the  clock.  The  supple- 
mentary flash-light  sigiial  board  is  behind  the  sending 
instruments.  The  complete  telephone  system  with  three 
instruments  is  at  the  right. 

Baggage,  Mail,  and  Express 

All  baggage,  mail,  and  express  are  handled  at  the 
street  level,  the  tracks  of  the  terminal  being  elevated 
to  avoid  crossing  busy  streets  at  grade.  Electric  ele- 
vators are  used  in  conveying  it  between  the  track  level 
and  the  rooms  provided  for  handling  it  below. 

The  station  baggage  agent  is  in  charge  of  all  matters 
pertaining  to  baggage.  For  the  clerical  work  he  has 
a  chief  clerk,  cashier,  and  clerks.  Counter-check  men 
attend  to  baggage  brought  for  checking  and  deliver 
baggage  for  checks  presented. 

The  in-room  handles  baggage  brought  by  trains  into 
the  station;  the  out-room  handles  baggage  brought  into 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  101 

the  station  to  be  handled  by  outgoing  trains.  There 
are  day  and  night  foremen  in  charge  of  each  of  these 
rooms  with  a  force  of  truckers,  weighers,  checkers,  and 
check-strippers.  Baggage  is  conveyed  between  in-room 
and  out-room  by  electric  motors  in  charge  of  motor- 
drivers.  Baggage  is  conveyed  between  baggage  room 
and  train  platfonn  levels  by  electric  elevator  operators. 

The  United  States  mail  is  handled  under  the  super- 
vision of  day  and  night  foremen  with  a  force  of  truckers 
and  clerks.  The  railroad  company  carries  about  fifty 
men  on  its  station  pay  roll  who  are  engaged  exclusively 
in  this  service. 

There  are  four  electrically  operated  belt  conveyors, 
serving  eight  tracks,  the  conveyors  being  located  between 
four  "pairs"  of  tracks.  These  conveyors  extend  the 
whole  length  of  the  covered  platfonn  so  that  a  mail 
car  can  discharge  the  sacks  from  any  train  standing  in 
the  terminal.  The  telautograph  advises  the  operators  on 
the  street  level  of  an  approaching  train  and  the  belt 
conveyors  are  in  motion  when  the  train  stops  in  the 
terminal.  This  plan  not  only  operates  as  a  labor-saving 
device  but  reduces  the  time  necessary  for  a  mail  car 
to  occupy  tracks,  all  of  which  are  fully  utilized  during 
the  ''rush"  periods. 

The  Chicago  &  Northwestern  Railway  mail  is  also 
handled  under  the  supervision  of  day  and  night  foremen 
with  truckers  and  clerks. 

The  commissary  department  for  supplying  dining  and 
buffet  cars  is  located  in  the  passenger  terminal,  and 
such  cars  are  stocked  immediately  after  arrival  and 
before  they  are  moved  to  the  coach  yard.  This  is  an 
unusual  arrangement  but  works  well.  Supplies  taken 
directly  from  the  ice  boxes  in  the  connnissary  are 
placed  in  the  ice  boxes  of  the  cars  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  shortening  the  necessary  exposure  to  the  ele- 
ments and  unsanitary  conditions  to  the  minimum.    AVhile 


102    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

this  operation  in  itself  is  within  the  passenger  terminal 
and  therefore  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  terminal 
superintendent,  the  commissary  department  does  not 
report  to  him  nor  is  it  under  his  jurisdiction  in  other 
respects. 

Duties  of  Officers 

In  the  following  description  of  the  duties  of  the 
various  officers  it  must  be  remembered  that  while  certain 
officers  report  to  the  superintendent  of  passenger  ter- 
minal directly  in  reference  to  passenger  terminal  oper- 
ation, they  report  also  to  their  respective  departments; 
that  is,  the  terminal  passenger  agent  reports  to  the 
general  passenger  agent,  the  chief  engineer  to  the  super- 
intendent of  motive  power,  the  baggage  agent  to  the 
general  baggage  agent,  the  chief  of  police  to  the  special 
agent.  Such  officers  as  roadmaster,  bridge  foreman,  and 
signal  supervisor  serve  for  the  whole  Chicago  Terminal 
District,  reporting  to  the  superintendent  in  charge  of 
any  particular  terminal  operation  (freight,  passenger, 
etc.)  on  matters  relating  to  that  particular  subdivision 
of  the  whole  Chicago  Terminal  District. 

The  terminal  passenger  and  ticket  agent  has  direct 
supervision  of  the  ticket  sellers  and  in  addition  has 
duties  closely  allied  to  those  of  a  general  agent  of  the 
passenger  department.  • 

The  station  master  has  supervision  of  passengers, 
agents,  ushers,  gatemen,  train-announcers,  and  matrons, 
and  of  the  parcel  room,  information  bureau,  and  emi- 
grants' room. 

The  passenger  agent's  duties  are  to  give  any  informa- 
tion asked  for  by  patrons  as  to  passenger  traffic  matters, 
time  of  trains  on  connecting  lines,  rates  of  fare,  etc., 
and  to  exercise  general  supervision  over  the  other  em- 
ployees reporting  to  the  station  master. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  103 

The  chief  usher  has  direct  charge  of  the  ushers 
attending  to  passengers  arriving  through  the  carriage 
entrances  and  the  ^'red  caps"  assisting  passengers  with 
hand  baggage  to  and  from  trains. 

The  gatemen  are  charged  with  getting  passengers  to 
the  right  trains  and  preventing  those  not  passengers,  or 
accompanying  them,  from  entering  the  train  platform. 
In  addition,  as  heretofore  expkiined,  they  participate  in 
the  signaling  required  in  starting  trains. 

The  train-announcers  call  the  time  of  all  arriving  and 
departing  trains,  the  latter  when  the  train  is  ready  and 
just  before  the  time  of  departure.  These  announce- 
ments are  made  both  on  the  train  level  (second  floor)  and 
the  street  level,  an  announcer  being  assigned  to  each 
floor. 

The  head  matron  has  supervision  over  the  matrons  in 
charge  of  the  waiting  rooms,  rest  room,  immigration 
room,  and  hospital.  There  are  a  rest  room  provided 
with  sanitary  couches  and  other  conveniences  for  women, 
and  a  separate  large  apartment  for  women  with  young 
children,  for  whom  cribs  and  other  comforts  and  amuse- 
ments are  provided.  The  various  rooms  with  their  sani- 
tary toilet  and  bathroom  adjuncts  are  in  each  case  in 
charge  of  a  matron.  Separate  writing  room  and  bath- 
rooms for  men  are  in  charge  of  an  attendant.  All  this 
service  is  jjrovided  without  charge  to  the  road's  patrons 
except  the  bathrooms. 

The  parcel  room  for  checking  handbaggage  and  parcels 
is  the  usual  one  with  a  lost-and-found  depart mont 
attached,  to  which  are  taken  all  articles  found  in  the 
trains — all  of  which  are  searched  immediately  after  the 
departure  of  passengers.  An  average  of  two  hundred 
articles  per  week  is  turned  into  this  department. . 

There  are  two  information  bureaus  on  the  first  floor 
furnishing  information  as  to  train  time,  hotels,  parks, 


104    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

street  cars,  and  other  subjects  on  wliicli  patrons  need 
advice,  together  with  public  teleplione  service  near  by. 

All  emigrants  are  taken  from  and  to  trains  through 
the  emigrant  room,  which  is  in  charge  of  men  and 
women  attendants  day  and  night.  This  room  is  provided 
with  toilets,  baths,  and  all  accessories  essential  to  their 
comfort.  The  women's  room  is  provided  with  laundry 
tubs  and  steam  drying  facilities  in  addition.  In  order 
to  protect  them  against  theft,  imposition,  and  their  own 
ignorance  as  to  surroundings  and  conditions,  this  room 
is  under  the  supervision  of  an  agent  and  a  matron  at 
all  times. 

The  custodian  of  the  building  has  charge  of  the  clean- 
ing of  the  building  and  driveways  and  the  operation 
of  the  passenger  elevators.  He  has  a  day  and  a  night 
foreman  to  assist  him.  The  forces  consist  of  marble, 
window,  general,  and  driveway  cleaners  and  scrubwomen 
and  elevator  operators. 

The  chief  engineer  has  charge  of  the  power  plant 
of  the  terminal,  which  is  of  very  considerable  extent. 
Eeporting  to  him  are  the  chief  electrician,  in  charge  of 
all  electrical  construction  and  maintenance,  and  two 
engineers  (mechanical)  in  charge  of  the  engine  and 
boiler  plants,  all  of  whom  have  the  forces  usual  in  such 
electrical  and  mechanical  operation. 

The  station  police  force  is  in  charge  of  a  chief.  The 
duties  are  those  of  patrolling  the  property,  maintaining 
order,  preventing  theft  and  trespassing,  and  enforcing 
the  regulations  as  to  the  operation  of  the  terminals.  In 
addition  the  chief  attends  to  personal  injuries  arising 
from  the  passenger  terminal  operation,  these  latter 
duties  being  very  light,  however,  in  this  particular  ter- 
minal, omng  to  the  careful  supervision  on  the  station 
platform  and  at  the  gates. 

A  chief  clerk  with  an  office  force  attends  to  the  clerical 
duties  of  the  superintendent  of  terminal's  office. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  105 

The  total  number  of  persons  carried  on  this  passenger 
terminal  pay  roll  is  about  five  hundred,  which  of  course 
includes  the  station  employees  only  and  not  trainmen. 

In  some  instances  a  superintendent  of  terminal  has 
charge  of  all  terminal  facilities,  passenger  stations, 
freight  stations,  yards,  team,  industrial,  and  all  other 
tracks.  The  extent  of  his  jurisdiction  will  be  determined 
on  the  basis  of  volume  of  business  transacted.  At  such 
centers  as  Chicago  the  nature  and  volume  of  the  business 
is  such  that  there  must  be  a  minutely  divided  and  spe- 
cialized supervision  of  terminal  operation  to  obtain 
efficiency.  At  other  points,  with  less  volume  of  traffic, 
the  supervision  of  all  the  facilities  of  a  terminal  by  one 
officer  is  entirely  feasible  from  an  economic  standpoint. 


CHAPTER  IX 
operation— maintenance 

Maintenance  of  Way 

This  department  has  charge  of  the  maintenance  of 
the  road  and  structures,  including  track,  bridges,  build- 
ings, turntables,  water  supply,  signals,  fences,  road  cross- 
ings— in  fact  all  the  fixed  physical  properties  used  in 
and  in  connection  with  the  conduct  of  transportation. 

Each  operating  division  is  divided  into  sections,  the 
work  on  which  is  in  charge  of  a  section  foreman.  The 
length  of  these  sections  depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the 
density  of  traffic,  varying  from  five  to  seven  miles  on 
single-track  roads,  from  three  to  five  miles  on  double- 
tracked  roads,  and  from  two  to  three  miles  on  four- 
track  lines. 

The  number  of  switches  on  the  line  affects  the  length 
of  the  section  and  the  force  to  be  employed.  On  an 
ordinary  section  about  fifteen  switches  necessitate  the 
employment  of  an  extra  man  in  the  gang  on  track  mod- 
erately busy;  in  a  terminal  or  busy  yard  the  number 
of  switches  per  man  of  section  force  is  less. 

The  section  gangs  are  under  the  immediate  supervision 
of  a  roadmaster  or  a  supervisor  reporting  to  him.  The 
length  of  a  roadmaster 's  division  varies  with  the  char- 
acter of  the  traffic.  On  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 
Railway  it  is  eighty  to  one  hundred  miles  of  single- 
track  main  line  with  sixty  to  eighty  miles  of  branch 
line  in  addition;  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe 
Railroad,  a  total  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
of  single  track;  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railroad,  siiity- 
five  to  one  hundred  and  thirty  miles  of  single  track.    On 

10b 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  107 

double-track  lines  his  division  varies  from  forty  to 
sixty-five  miles  of  line;  and  on  four-track  lines  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty-five  miles. 

The  work  consists  in  keeping  the  roadbed  slopes  and 
ditches  to  the  lines  of  the  standard  plan  of  roadbed 
section ;  keeping  the  ballast  free  of  weeds  and  at  proper 
slope;  maintaining  the  line,  surface,  and  gage  of  the 
track,  with  particular  attention  to  the  rail  joints;  main- 
taining all  switches  and  fixtures  and  giving  them  fre- 
quent inspection;  replacing  old  ties  and  rails  with  new; 
repairing  permanent  fences  and  placing  and  removing 
snow  fences;  maintaining  road  crossings;  clearing  tres- 
tles, culverts,  and  pipes  of  obstructions;  cutting  and 
burning  weeds  and  removing  rubbish  from  the  riglit 
of  way,  including  ties  removed  from  the  track;  cleaning 
and  maintaining  station  grounds ;  picking  up  and  storing 
scrap  material  of  value  for  shipment. 

Surfacing  is  continually  required  for  the  track;  that 
is,  putting  the  rails  and  track  in  a  uniform  plane.  Sur- 
facing, as  here  used,  refers  only  to  the  small  raises 
required  to  eliminate  slight  irregularities  of  the  track; 
once  in  about  four  years,  as  the  old  ballast  under  traffic 
gradually  works  down  into  the  material  of  the  roadbed 
and  becomes  ''powdered"  under  the  movement  of  trains, 
the  entire  track  is  raised  "out  of  face,"  or  brouglit  up 
to  a  new  surface,  A'hich  is  done  with  a  layer  of  three 
or  four  inches  of  new  ballast. 

Track  is  "lined"  after  surfacing  and  then  carefully 
brought  to  exact  "gage"  (the  standard  width  between 
rails)  the  flanges  of  engine  and  car  wheels  tending 
to  loosen  the  spikes  holding  the  rails  and  thus  throw 
them  out  of  line  and  gage. 

Approximately  ten  to  twelve  per  cent  of  the  ties  in 
the  track  have  to  be  replaced  each  year.  On  moderately 
busy  main  lines  the  rails  must  be  renewed  about  once  in 
ten  years,  the  rails  removed  being  later  relaid  on  lines 


108    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

of  lighter  traffic — as  branch  lines,  and  yards.  In  many 
situations,  as  on  veiy  sharp  curves,  under  heavy  traffic, 
a  rail  remains  in  main-line  service  for  only  a  few  months, 
the  flanges  of  the  wheels  cutting  the  head  of  the  rail  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  becomes  unsafe  for  operation. 

Usually  the  ties  are  hauled  out  by  construction  trains 
during  the  winter,  so  that  they  may  be  available  immedi- 
ately after  the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground,  at  which 
time  the  new  ties  may  be  most  econbmically  placed,  on 
account  of  the  loosening  of  the  ballast  through  frost 
action.  On  single-track  lines  the  new  rail  to  be  laid  is 
strung  along  the  ends  of  the  ties  and  bolted  up  so  that 
as  the  old  rail  is  removed  (which  is  done  in  "strings"  of 
rail  several  hundred  feet  long,  moved  at  one  time)  the 
new  rail  is  slipped  into  place  and  spiked  as  rapidly  as 
possible  to  avoid  delaying  traffic. 

The  transportation  of  ties  and  rails  for  renewals 
necessitates  usually  the  use  of  a  construction  or  work 
train,  which  is  in  charge  of  a  conductor  who  reports  to 
the  roadmaster.  In  addition,  many  roads  work  what 
are  called  ''floating  gangs,"  who  live  in  the  boarding 
cars  of  the  company  and  are  used  over  the  entire  divi- 
sion in  tie-replacement  work  in  order  to  have  that  com- 
pleted as  early  as  possible  after  the  frost  leaves  the 
ground.  These  gangs  also  attend  to  the  larger  jobs  of 
cleaning  ditches  and  widening  narrow  places  in  excava- 
tions, caused  by  winter  slides.  They  are  often  employed 
in  connection  w^ith  large  rail  renewals. 

Division  Engineer 

The  division  engineer  has  two  masters  to  the  extent 
that  in  all  matters  affecting  the  standards  of  track,  road- 
bed, etc.,  he  reports  to  the  chief  engineer  but  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  actual  work  of  maintaining 
the  roadbed,  track,  and  structures,  he  reports  directly 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  109 

to,  and  works  under  the  supervision  of,  the  division 
superintendent.  He  is  directly  responsible  for  the  con- 
dition of  the  track  and  maintains  supervision  over  it 
through  the  roadmaster,  who  has  direct  charge  of  section 
foremen  and  track  forces.  His  work  consists  chiefly 
in  providing  stakes  showing  the  proper  center  for  the 
track,  and  other  stakes  indicating  the  proper  level  for 
the  top  of  the  rail;  marking  on  the  ground  the  location 
of  spur  tracks  or  new  sidings;  and  in  fact  any  minor 
improvement  or  change  in  the  track  arrangement,  or  the 
location  of  buildings  and  other  structures.  He  has 
charge  of  the  operation  of  the  ballast  forces,  the  locat- 
ing and  laying  out  of  tracks  used  in  connection  with 
such  work,  and  determining  the  actual  work  perfonned 
in  providing  track  ballast. 

In  connection  with  the  superintendent  he  reports  in 
detail  as  to  the  requirements  of  ties,  bridge  renewals, 
road  crossings,  fences,  and  all  other  structures  which 
from  their  nature  require  constant  replacement.  He 
is  required  also  to  inspect  and  be  informed  at  all  times 
upon  the  condition  of  the  rails,  with  the  special  object 
of  detecting  defective  rails  and  other  dangerous  track 
conditions. 

In  cases  of  wrecks  or  washouts  he  may,  under  the 
superintendent,  have  direct  charge  of  all  of  the  track 
forces  employed  in  that  connection.  At  such  times  and 
during  periods  of  long-continued  rain  or  heavy  snowfalls, 
the  duties  of  this  officer  are  most  strenuous,  as  he  is 
charged  generally  with  maintaining  the  roadbed  at  all 
times  for  operation  and  of  restoring  it  as  quickly 
as  possible  when  for  any  reason  operation  has  been 
temporarily  obstructed  or  suspended. 

Reporting  to  the  division  engineer  are  the  roadmas- 
ters,  the  foremen  of  bridges  and  buildings,  and  the 
signal  supervisor.  Some  exceptions  to  this  statement 
are  noted  in  following  pages. 


110    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Roadmaster 

From  the  nature  of  his  duties  the  roadmaster  spends 
most  of  his  time  on  the  line  in  supervising  and  instruct- 
ing the  track  forces.  He  usually  has  from  twenty  to 
twenty-five  ''section  gangs"  reporting  to  him.  In 
the  laying  of  important  railroad  crossings  and  other 
special  w^ork,  he  often  assumes  direct  charge.  In  the 
annual  tie-renewal,  which  generally  takes  place  in  the 
spring,  or  at  the  time  of  the  general  clean-up  in  the  fall, 
he  often  takes  direct  charge  of  the  construction  train  in 
doing  the  larger  jobs  of  cleaning  cuts  and  similar 
work.  He  receives  and  passes  on  the  requisitions  of 
the  section  foremen  for  the  material  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  track  and  other  roadbed  structures.  His  prin- 
cipal employment,  however,  consists  of  close  personal 
inspection  of  the  track  as  to  line  and  surface,  so  that  it 
may  be  safe  for  operation,  and  instructing  both  gen- 
erally and  specifically  the  section  foremen  reporting 
to  him. 

Section  Gang 

This  force  is  in  charge  of  a  section  foreman  and  con- 
sists of  from  two  to  ten  men,  who  maintain  from  five  to 
seven  miles  of  main  line  track  with  the  appurtenant 
sidings  and  tracks.  At  certain  periods  these  forces  are 
increased  materially  for  extraordinary  work,  as  during 
the  times  of  tie-replacement  and  rail-renewal,  and  in 
special  work  outside  the  ordinary  routine. 

Stated  generally,  this  force  lines  and  surfaces  track, 
replaces  and  tamps  ties,  cleans  ditches,  cuts  and  burns 
weeds,  and  repairs  fences,  road  crossings,  and  other 
track  structures. 

The  policing  of  the  track  is  one  of  the  important 
duties  of  the  section  force.    Some  member  of  the  force 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  111 

is  designated  as  a  ''trackwalker,"  wliose  duty  it  is  to 
inspect  each  rail  and  joint  as  he  walks  over  the  track, 
in  doing  which  he  tightens  all  bolts  in  the  joints  and 
notes  all  low  joints  and  defects  at  switches  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reporting  to  the  foreman.  It  is  usual  to  require 
the  trackwalker  to  inspect  particularly  one  rail  of  the 
track  on  his  trip  out  over  the  section,  and  the  opposite 
rail  on  his  return.  In  some  special  situations,  as  on 
sharp  curv^es  and  at  certain  times  where  a  long-con- 
tinued rain  or  snow  makes  probable  the  occurrence  of 
slides,  special  policing  of  the  track  is  done  by  the  section 
forces. 

Large  yards  at  terminals  or  at  important  connec- 
tions, with  the  approaches  thereto,  are  often  the  limits 
of  the  section  assigned  to  one  foreman,  Miio  will  be 
particularly  expert  in  the  laying  and  maintenance  of 
switches  and  other  special  track  work. 

Bridges  and  Buildings  Force 

This  force  consists  of  a  foreman  with  a  force  of  bridge 
carpenters,  who  are  charged  with  the  maintenance  of 
bridges,  buildings,  turntables,  track  scales,  cinder  pits, 
water  and  fuel  stations,  fixed  signals,  mail  cranes,  and 
other  structures  appurtenant  to  the  railroad.  On  lines 
whose  bridges  are  built  largely  of  timber,  as  pile  or 
frame  timber  structures,  this  force  will  be  larger  than 
where  the  bridge  structures  are  of  a  permanent  nature; 
that  is,  where  steel  spans  and  masonry  piers  and  abut- 
ments are  employed.  In  any  event  the  item  of  replace- 
ment of  decks  on  either  steel  bridges  or  temporary 
structures  is  an  important  one.  The  bridge  foreman  is  in 
addition  charged  with  the  duty  of  frequently  examining 
the  foundations  of  bridges  and  other  structures,  par- 
ticularly where  they  are  subjected  to  scouring  action 
in  riverbeds  and  like  situations.     The  painting  of  steel 


112     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

bridges  and  of  buildings  is  in  charge  of  the  foreman  of 
this  force. 

General 

There  are  several  variations  in  the  organization  of 
the  maintenance-of-way  forces  necessitated  by  particu- 
larly dense  traffic  or  some  special  condition.  On  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  an  assistant  engineer  has  charge 
of  an  operating  di\dsion  (equivalent  of  division  engi- 
neer), and  the  supervisors  (roadmasters  on  other  roads), 
who  are  engineers  in  training,  have  charge  of  about 
twenty-five  miles  of  double  or  four-track  line  each, 
and  report  to  him.  The  section  foremen  have  charge 
of  two  and  one-half  to  three  miles  each  and  report  to 
the  supervisors.  On  each  division  there  is  a  master 
carpenter  (corresponding  to  the  foreman  of  bridges 
and  buildings  on  other  roads)  and  masons  for  repair 
work. 

On  the  Michigan  Central  the  superintendent  of  track 
reports  to  the  chief  engineer,  and  the  roadmaster  (who 
has  an  assistant)  reports  to  the  superintendent  of  track; 
carpenters,  masons,  and  painters  report  to  the  division 
foreman  of  buildings  and  water  stations,  and  bridge 
crews  to  the  foreman  of  bridges ;  signal  inspectors  report 
to  the  signal  engineer. 

Signals 

The  signal  supervisors  have  charge  of  all  station  sig- 
nals, block  signal  systems,  and  interlocking  plants. 
They  are  charged  with  the  operation,  maintenance,  and 
inspection  of  all  these  signals,  being  assisted  in  the 
field  by  signalmen  and  inspectors.  On  roads  haA^ng 
only  the  simple  station  signals  they  report  usually 
to  the  division  engineer;  on  roads  having  block  signals 
and  interlockers  they  report  either  directly  to  the  divi- 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  113 

sion  engineer  on  operation  and  maintenance  and  to 
the  signal  engineer  on  matters  of  standards,  or  in  most 
instances  to  the  signal  engineer  direct. 

Maintenance  of  Equipment 

The  maintenance  of  all  equipment  is  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  the  master  mechanic. 

Master  Mechanic 

The  master  mechanic  reports  directly  to  the  superin- 
tendent of  motive  power  on  standards  of  equipment  and 
to  the  superintendent  on  matters  pertaining  to  the 
mechanical  side  of  operating  conditions  and  mainten- 
ance of  equipment.  He  has  general  supervision  over 
the  engineers  and  firemen  in  train  service,  through  a 
road  foreman  of  engines,  and  general  supervision  of 
the  engine-house  through  a  foreman  of  engine-house,  and 
in  some  instances  of  shops  through  a  superintendent 
of  shops. 

Figure  11,  which  shows  the  organization  of  the  New 
York  Central  (Lines  West),  is  typical  of  general  con- 
ditions. The  titles  of  the  dilferent  foremen  and  their 
forces  are  such  as  to  indicate  the  nature  of  the  duties  of 
all  of  them.  Hence  the  diagram  itself  is  presented  rather 
than  a  description  in  detail  of  the  various  mechanics 
whose  duties  are  obvious.  It  is  to  l)e  noted  that  the  force 
in  the  engine-house  attends  only  to  the  light,  current 
repairs  of  locomotives,  the  heavier  periodical  repairs 
being  performed  in  the  shops  designed  for  that  purpose. 
In  the  chapter  on  the  Mechanical  Department  this  work 
is  described  in  detail. 


114    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


Foreman   Boiler'  Maker  —  Boiler    Makers—  Helpers 
-Foreman   of   Tanks —Tank  Repairers 
-Foreman  of    Air  Brakes  —  Inspector  --  Repairers 


Foreman    of 
-Passenoer    House 


Machinists  —Helpers— Apprentices 
•Inspectors 
•Shop    Firemen 
•  Doper 


©     O 

5i 


ll 


^  c 
<  ° 


Foreman   Machine  Shop  -  Machinists  —  Apprentices 

Foreman    Heavy    Repairs  -  Machinists  —  Apprentices 
-Freight    House    Machinists  —  Helpers— Apprentices 

Freight    House     Inspectors 
-Freight    House     Shop    Firemen 

Carpenters 

Painters 

-  Pipe    Fitters 

-Blacksmith  — Helpers 
Tinsmith 

Stationary  Engineer 
Stationary  Fireman 
Hostlers 

-  Cinder    Pit    Men 
Wipers 

-Crane  Men 
-Engine    Tooler 
-Material    Men 
-Tool    Room    Man 

-  Helpers 

-Engine    Dispatcher    Callers 


-Foreman   Boiler  Maker  —  Boiler    Makers  —  Helpers 


—  to 
•c  E 


-Machinist    Foreman 


-^Engine  Dispatcher  Callers 


Road   Foreman   of    Engines  -  Engrs.— Firemen 
Traveling    Fireman 
Superintendent   of    Shops 


Machinists  —  Helper 
Tank    Men 
Air   Brake    Men 
Passenger    House   Wiper 

-  Inspectors 
Shop    Firemen 
Cinder    Pit    Men 

-  Hostlers 
-Stat'ny  Fireman 


Fig.  11. — Operation — Maintenance  of  Equipment 


CHAPTER  X 

OPERATION-MECHANICAL  DEPARTMENT 

This  department  is  charged  with  the  design,  opera- 
tion, and  maintenance  of  all  of  the  equipment — loco- 
motives, cars,  wrecking  tools,  etc. — and  the  shops,  engine- 
houses,  and  other  facilities  required  for  such  purposes. 
Its  work  is  divided  broadly  into  a  motive  power  depart- 
ment, in  charge  of  locomotives,  and  a  car  department,  in 
charge  of  cars.  Each  of  these  subdepartments  is  furtlier 
divided  as  to  general  duties  into  design  and  construc- 
tion of  new  equipment  and  maintenance  of  all  equip- 
ment. 

The  requirements  of  operation  are  such  that  vaiying 
equipment  is  essential  to  economical  operation.  Evi- 
dently what  would  be  an  economical  engine  under  some 
circumstances  would  not  be  under  others;  hence  the 
necessity  for  differing  classes  of  engines  and  cars. 

Types  of  Engines 

Different  tj^Des  of  engines  are  required  for  the  various 
classes  of  service.  The  switching  engines  have  the 
simplest  arrangement.  As  such  engines  have  to  go 
around  very  sharp  curves  on  industrial  tracks,  the 
w^heel  base  must  be  comparatively  short,  and  they  liave 
no  leading  or  trailing  truck.  The  former  "double- 
enders,"  which  may  be  i-un  in  either  direction,  liave  no 
leading  truck.  They  are  used  chiefly  in  suburban  sers'ice 
and  have  small  coal  and  water  capacity. 

Engines  for  freight  service  may  be  grouped  into  tliree 

115 


116    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

general  classes:  those  having  two-wheeled  leading  truck 
with  no  trailer;  four-wheeled  leading;  and  two-wheeled 
leading  and  two-wheeled  trailer  trucks. 

In  the  first  group  are  the  ** Mogul,"  used  in  fast 
service;  the  ''Consolidation,"  used  in  heavy  freight 
service;  the  ''Decapod,"  used  on  stiff  grades  and  in 
pusher  service.  They  have  six,  eight,  and  ten  driving 
wheels,  respectively.  In  the  second  group  are  the 
"American,"  which  is  the  pioneer  freight  engine;  the 
"Ten-wdieeler,"  well  adapted  to  lines  in  the  Middle 
West,  where  a  large  portion  of  the  traffic  is  fast  freight 
and  stock  movement;  the  "Mastodon,"  used  principally 
in  mountain  service.  They  have  four,  six,  and  eight 
driving  wheels,  respectively. 

The  engines  in  the  third  group  are  the  same  as  those 
in  the  first,  with  trailing  trucks  added.  The  "Prairie" 
is  a  "Mogul"  with  a  trailer  added;  the  "Mikado"  is  a 
"Consolidation"  with  a  trailer  added;  the  "Santa  Fe" 
is  a  "Decapod"  with  a  trailing  truck  added. 

For  hea\y,  fast  passenger  service  on  low-grade  lines, 
the  "Atlantic"  type  is  used;  the  "Pacific"  type  for 
heavy,  fast  passenger  service  on  heavier  grades.  They 
have  four  and  six  driving  wheels,  respectively. 

There  are  special  engines  not  conforming  to  the  types 
here  shown,  such  as  the  huge  articulated  engines  used 


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OO  O  O :.  /9/if£f?/C/l/¥ 

OOO  o  o :.  T£A/)V//££L  £/? 

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o  OOO  o  ^  PP/f//?/£ 

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Fig.  12. — Types  of  Locomotives 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  117 

in  pusher  or  other  special  service.  The  types  shown 
above  cover  practically  all  standard  engines  in  rail- 
road use  with  those  exceptions. 

Classification  of  Locomotives 

Locomotives  are  classified  mainly  by  their  wheel 
arrangement;  their  rating  is  based  on  tractive  power.* 

All  railroads  have  a  variety  of  locomotive  equipment, 
and  in  order  to  define  distinctly  each  lot  or  kind 
for  records,  drawings,  patterns,  and  repair  parts,  the 
mechanical  department  makes  classifications,  using 
numerals  and  letters  to  designate  them.  There  is  no 
uniformity  among  the  railroads  as  to  these  classifica- 
tions, each  road  having  its  own  system.  For  instance, 
the  Pennsylvania  uses  '*A"  for  engines  having  two  pairs 
of  drivers  and  no  trucks;  '*D"  is  used  for  two  pairs  of 
drivers  and  four-wheeled  truck;  **H"  has  four  pairs 
of  drivers  and  two-wheeled  truck.  As  there  are  modi- 
fications in  detail  of  engines  having  the  same  wheel 
arrangement,  these  are  indicated  by  adding  a  numeral, 
as  ^'A-l",  ''A-3."  The  Eock  Island  System  classifies 
the  engines  by  numbers,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  shows  modi- 
fications of  class  by  affixing  a  letter  as  "3-A,"  etc.  The 
"Whyte  Classification"  gives  successively  the  number 
of  wheels  in  the  truck,  drivers,  and  trailer,  as  4-4-2, 
which  is  a  ten-wheel  engine.  The  American  Locomotive 
Company  uses  this  system  and  adds  the  total  weight  of 
the  engine,  as  4-6-0-180,  which  signifies  a  ten-wheel 
engine  weighing  180,000  pounds.  The  ''AVhyte  Classifi- 
cation" is  not  sufficient  for  the  motive  power  division 
purposes,  as  it  simply  gives  the  wheel  arrangement 
and  does  not  indicate  the  modifications  in  necessary 
detail.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a  distinctive  motive 
power  class  designation,  such  as  the  ''A-1,"  in  order 

'The  theoretical  draw -bar  pull:  i.  c  the  pullinfr  power  of  the  loroniotive 
expressed  in  pounds. 


118    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

to  make  proper  records,  compile  statistics,  and  order 
new  or  repair  parts  with  certainty. 

For  the  other  departments  of  the  railroad,  not  inter- 
ested in  minor  details,  another  classification  is  used, 
showing  the  type  and  the  tractive  power,  as  ''C-25," 
which  indicates  that  the  engine  is  a  '* Consolidation" 
with  a  tractive  power  of  25,000  pounds.  When  the 
symbols  are  learned,  an  idea  of  the  relative  size  and 
type  is  conveyed  by  the  symbol,  which  is  whatthe  oper- 
ating department  wants  to  know.  The  equipment  books 
and  list  show  all  such  details  as  diameter  of  wheels, 
and  capacity  of  tank,  if  such  information  is  needed  in 
addition.  Eating  books  for  each  di^dsion  are  kept  for 
the  purpose  of  assigning  the  proper  weight  of  train 
for  each  particular  class  of  engines.  In  columns  headed 
by  classes  of  engines  will  be  shown  the  tonnage  of  traiu 
that  can  be  moved  on  that  division  by  the  different 
classes  so  that  the  tonnage  rating  of  train  can  be 
assigned  from  the  rating  book  for  any  particular  engine 
without  calculation.  A  sample  page  from  such  a  rating 
book  for  the  Eastern  Division  of  the  Santa  Fe  Eailway 
is  sho^\Ti  in  Figure  13. 

Cak  Design  and  Constkuction 

The  varying  needs  of  the  traffic  call  for  many  classi- 
fications and  modifications  in  car  construction.  A 
standard  refrigerator  car  cannot  be  loaded  with  more 
than  twenty-five  tons  of  beef,  nor  a  standard  stock  car 
with  more  than  thirty  tons  of  live  cattle.  Originally  it 
was  thought  that  it  would  not  be  economical  to  build  a 
car  of  large  capacity  with  its  added  cost  and  increased 
dead  weight  for  the  few  occasions  when  it  would  be  used 
in  special  ser^dce  and  this  maximum  loading  might  be 
reached,  but  the  use  of  cars  is  so  developed  that  it  has 
been  found  economical  to  provide  sufficient  capacity  for 
heavy  loading  wherever  it  is  practicable. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT 


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120    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Two  cardinal  principles  are  controlling  in  car  con- 
struction: ease  of  construction,  and  hence  a  reduced 
first  cost;  ease  in  making  repairs,  and  hence  reduced 
cost  of  maintenance.  There  are  many  details  involved 
in  car  construction  that  require  careful  work  and 
technical  training. 

In  spite  of  an  experience  extending  over  eighty  years, 
the  cars  of  different  roads  are  not  built  to  the  same 
standards.  AVliile  they  all  have  cars  of  the  same  types, 
such  as  refrigerator,  stock,  and  coal,  there  are  infinite 
variations  in  the  details  of  their  design.  In  order  to 
facilitate  the  interchange  of  cars  in  through  business, 
there  are  certain  dimensions  and  shapes  that  must  be 
the  same  on  all  cars.  Dimensions  for  standards  for 
wheel  treads  and  flanges;  gaging  points  for  pressing 
wheels  on  axles;  journal  boxes;  bearings  and  bearing 
keys;  contour  lines  and  shanks  for  automatic  couplers; 
draft  attachments,  brake  beams,  etc. — these  have  been 
determined  by  the  Master  Car  Builders'  Association,  to 
which  all  roads  of  any  importance  belong.  In  this  way 
all  cars  may  be  coupled  to  trains  with  safety  and  the 
principal  car  repairs  for  any  foreign  car  are  available 
on  any  road  on  which  the  car  may  require  repair.  Before 
the  adoption  of  these  standards  the  car  might  stand 
for  days  or  weeks  awaiting  repair  parts  from  the  road 
which  owned  it. 

Maintenance  of  Equipment 

The  maintenance  of  equipment  involves  three  distinct 
things : 

Preparation  of  locomotives  and  cars 
for  service. 
Repair  of  locomotives  and  cars. 
Maintenance  of  the  plant  required  for 
those  purposes. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  121 

The  preparation  of  locomotives  for  service  includes 
the  following  work  at  locomotive  terminals:  coaling, 
watering,  sanding,  knocking  out  fire  at  ash  pit,  cleaning 
the  ash  pan  of  the  locomotive,  moving  it  into  the  engine- 
house  at  the  conclusion  of  its  run,  and  firing  it  up  and 
running  it  to  the  outgoing  track  when  it  is  ordered 
out. 

The  preparation  of  passenger  cars  includes  cleaning 
and  furnishing  them  with  water,  coal,  ice,  gas,  and  other 
supplies. 

The  preparation  of  freight  cars  includes  the  lubri- 
cation of  the  journals,  and  supplying  the  caboose  or 
way  car  with  coal,  water,  oil,  and  waste. 

The  plant  required  for  maintaining  the  engines  con- 
sists of  three  things:  first,  the  engine-house  at  the 
terminal  w^ith  its  appurtenant  machine  shop,  water, 
fuel,  and  sanding  stations,  oil  house,  etc.,  which  is 
used  for  making  the  light  running  repairs  and  for  pre- 
paring the  locomotive  for  service ;  second,  the  intermedi- 
ate fuel  and  water  stations,  and  cinder  pits  between 
engine  terminals;  third,  the  general  repair  shops  for 
handling  heavy  locomotive  repairs. 

For  the  passenger  equipment  there  are  coach  yards 
for  preparation  for  service  and  light  repair  work,  with 
facilities  for  coaling,  watering,  icing,  and  supplying 
with  gas  at  intermediate  points,  and  general  repair 
shops  for  general  repairs,  these  often  being  combined 
with  the  general  engine  shops. 

For  freight-equipment  repairs,  tracks  for  light  repairs, 
and  a  general  repair  shop. 

As  to  the  larger  part  of  the  force  employed,  the 
supervision  is  much  closer  in  this  than  in  many  other 
classes  of  railroad  work.  Except  as  to  car  inspectors 
and  repairers  at  intermediate  points,  the  forces  are  con- 
centrated at  engine  terminal  points  or  in  large  genera] 
shops. 


122    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

All  roads  keep  very  complete  records  of  all  costs  of 
maintenance  of  equipment.  In  the  case  of  engines,  rec- 
ords of  each  individual  engine  as  well  as  of  different 
types  are  kept  by  different  engine-houses,  general  shops, 
and  divisions. 

The  objects  to  be  gained  in  making  a  close  study  of 
costs  are  to  secure  greater  life  for  the  several  parts 
of  engines  and  cars;  to  know  definitely  what  sum  may 
be  spent  in  securing  such  benefit ;  to  detect  uneconomical 
shop  operation;  to  reduce  to  a  minimum  the  damage 
from  careless  or  ignorant  handling  of  the  equipment. 

Kinds  of  Engine  Repairs 

The  most  frequently  required  of  important  repairs 
in  engine  maintenance  apply  to  boiler,  firebox,  flues, 
cylinders,  valve  seats,  and  tires.  Three  sub-divisions  of 
engine  repair  work  are  generally  used :  running  repairs, 
heavy  repairs,  and  general  repairs.  Engines  require 
the  first  at  the  end  of  each  run,  the  second  when  they 
have  run  from  20,000  to  40,000  miles;  the  third  at  the 
end  of  70,000  to  100,000  miles  of  road  service.  The 
light  repair  work  is  done  at  the  engine  house  of  the 
engine  terminal,  the  other  repairs  at  the  general  shop. 

The  engineer  at  the  end  of  his  run  makes  a  report 
of  the  condition  of  the  engine,  and  a  statement  of  repairs 
he  considers  needed.  As  many  defects  are  apparent 
only  when  the  engine  is  ninning,  this  report  is  important. 

The  ' 'front-end  inspector"  will  then  inspect  the  spark 
arresters,  while  the  engine  is  at  the  cinder  pit.  The 
locomotive  inspector  makes  a  careful  inspection  to  form 
an  opinion  of  the  repairs  needed,  which  is  compared 
with  the  engineer's  report.  The  different  mechanics 
are  assigned  to  specific  work,  which  is  afterward 
inspected.  The  boiler  maker  inspects  the  fire-box  before 
the  engines  go  out  for  any  additional  needed  repairs. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  123 

These  repairs  are  only  such  as  to  enable  the  engine  to 
run  without  risk  of  failure  to  the  next  shop  with  its 
rated  train  load  and  on  schedule  time,  when  the  oper- 
ation is  repeated. 

As  an  engine  becomes  older,  the  repairs  necessary 
to  accomplish  this  become  heavier.  Many  parts  of  the 
engine  are  not  easily  accessible,  and  the  cost  of  removing 
and  replacing  certain  worn  parts  involves  handling 
many  other  parts  which  may  form  a  very  large  portion 
of  the  total  cost  of  the  repairs.  When  these  running 
repairs  become  heavy  the  engine  is  given  a  general 
overhauling,  all  parts  being  repaired  that  are  likely  to 
fail  during  the  next  20,000  to  40,000  miles.  This  is  what 
is  meant  by  heavy  repairs.  Of  course,  the  light  run- 
ning repairs  will  continue  during  this  next  20,000  to 
40,000-mile  running.  The  engine  will  sometimes  have 
two  or  three  heavy  repairs  before  requiring  general 
repairs,  which  will  be  required  when  the  total  of  engine 
miles  reaches  from  70,000  to  100,000  miles. 

The  condition  of  some  parts  of  the  engine  cannot  be 
known  until  it  is  taken  down  for  general  repairs.  Sup- 
pose some  important  part  appears  to  have  a  life  of 
10,000  miles.  The  general  repairs  will  place  the  rest 
of  the  engine  in  service  for  20,000  miles.  Will  it  be  better 
to  sacrifice  the  10,000-mile  life  of  the  individual  part  or 
tear  the  engine  down  again  at  the  end  of  the  10,000 
miles? 

The  shop  room  on  any  road  accommodates  a  fixed 
number  of  engines.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the 
demand  for  power  is  greater  than  at  others.  In  order  to 
answer  the  question  given  above,  the  condition  of  the 
shop  at  the  end  of  the  10,000  and  20,000-mil('  run  nnist 
be  considered,  as  the  engine  must  go  on  side  track  and 
wait  for  available  shop  space  if  it  be  fully  occupied.  If 
business  were  such  that  plenty  of  engines  were  avail- 
able, this  would  not  be  a  serious  matter,  but  if  offered 


124    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

business  could  not  be  moved  on  account  of  lack  of 
motive  power,  it  would  be  serious.  The  reasons  for 
keeping  accurate  records  of  costs  and  life  of  the  several 
parts  of  an  engine  in  different  services  become  apparent 
when  such  questions  as  these  are  considered,  as  the  net 
earnings  from  additional  business  of  an  engine  in 
average  service  might  be  over  $200  per  day.  This, 
too,  make  it  plain  that  business  judgment  as  well  as 
technical  knowledge  is  required  in  the  solution  of  many 
maintenance  questions. 

Passenger  Car  Repairs 

It  is  common  practice  to  pass  all  passenger  equipment 
through  the  general  repair  shop  at  stated  intervals, 
when  it  is  placed  in  first-class  condition,  the  light  run- 
ning repairs  being  attended  to  between  such  periods  at 
the  coach  yards.  On  roads  paying  particular  attention 
to  passenger  traffic  the  cars  are  overhauled  about  once 
a  year;  on  others  the  periods  may  be  from  two  to  two 
and  one-half  years.  The  factors  entering  into  the  cost 
of  such  repairs  are  car  mileage  and  the  proportion  of 
the  several  kinds  of  passenger  equipment,  as  baggage, 
day  coach,  chair,  dining,  etc.  It  evidently  requires  less 
expenditure  to  keep  baggage  and  mail  cars  in  serviceable 
condition  than  the  highly  finished  upholstered  coaches. 

Freight  Car  Repairs 

The  factors  entering  into  this  cost  are  car  mileage, 
the  proportion  of  cars  of  different  capacities  and 
classes  (refrigerator,  flat  cars,  etc.),  and  the  manner 
of  handling  cars  in  yards  and  in  train  sei'\ace. 

The  repairs  are  seldom  anticipated  and  are  limited 
to  replacing  broken  or  decayed  parts  when  the  condi- 
tion of  the  car  demands  it.    The  larger  part  of  damage 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  125 

to  cars  is  caused  by  rough  handling  in  switching  service 
in  yards.  The  remedy  for  repairs  due  to  this  cause 
is  the  special  inspection  of  such  service  in  large  yards. 

Engine  Terminals 

Engine  terminals  are  in  charge  of  the  master 
mechanic,  or  if  small,  of  an  engine-house  foreman 
reporting  to  him.  The  master  mechanic  has  general 
supervision  of  the  entire  engine  work  of  the  terminal; 
the  assignment  of  engines;  and  the  supervision  of  sup- 
plies in  the  store  room  to  avoid  delay  on  account  of 
needed  parts,  or  carrying  larger  stocks  of  parts  than 
are  required.  His  principal  duty  is  being  thoroughly 
informed  of  the  condition  of  all  engines  running  into 
his  teiTuinal,  so  that  he  may  judge  the  proper  time  for 
making  general  or  heavy  repairs.  He  gives  special 
attention  to  the  cause  of  the  breakage  of  parts  with 
a  view  to  eliminating  as  many  of  them  as  possible. 

The  engine-house  foreman  has  direct  charge  of  the 
mechanics,  boiler  makers,  hostlers,  coalers,  cinder-pit 
men,  wipers,  callers,  fire-up  men,  and  all  the  other  labor 
having  to  do  with  the  preparation  of  and  the  making  of 
the  light  repairs  to  the  engines. 

These  engine  terminals  on  a  system  will,  as  an  aver- 
age, be  located  according  to  train  districts  at  intervals 
of  125  to  150  miles  along  the  main  lines,  with  inter- 
mediate engine-houses  for  connecting  branches. 

General  Repair  Shop 

This  shop  is  located  with  reference  to  the  conveni- 
ence of  service  to  the  entire  line,  and  to  the  engine 
terminals  just  mentioned,  which  it  must  supply  with 
repair  or  new  parts.  The  general  repair  shop  is  made 
up  of  a  number  of  subshops,  as :    tool,  erecting,  machine, 


126    RAILWAY  ORaANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

blacksmith,  boiler,  tin,  copper,  and  pipe  shops,  foundry, 
planing  mill,  paint  shop,  lumber  yard,  car  shop,  uphol- 
stering shop,  miscellaneous  shop,  stores  department. 

Fig-ure  14,  showing  the  organization  of  a  shop  on  the 
New  York  Central  (Lines  West)  indicates  the  general 
work  done. 

These  various  shops  are  so  equipped  that  the  capacity 
of  one  is  arranged  for  the  capacity  of  the  others  and 
the  capacity  of  the  machines  is  arranged  for  the  capaci- 
ties of  other  machines.  These  shops  are  manufacturers 
of  tools  and  various  repair  parts  for  other  than  engine 
and  car  repairs. 

Most  large  railroads  are  an  aggregation  of  smaller 
roads  built  under  separate  standards,  and  in  addition 
there  have  been  most  radical  changes  in  size  of  engines 
and  cars  in  the  last  few  years.  As  a  result  the  equip- 
ment and  tools  comprise  a  heterogeneous  mass,  making 
the  interchange  of  parts  practically  impossible  as  to 
most  of  it.  The  shop  operation,  therefore,  consists  of 
the  manufacture  of  a  multiplicity  of  parts  and  tools. 
Most  large  systems  standardize  their  locomotives  into 
eight  or  ten  sizes,  and  five  or  six  types,  but  much  of  the 
old  equipment  remains  on  branch  and  unimportant  lines 
for  years. 

Officers 

The  officer  at  the  head  of  the  mechanical  depart- 
ment is  called  superintendent  of  motive  power,  or  some 
similar  title.  He  has  supervision  of  all  matters  per- 
taining to  the  constniction  and  maintenance  of  locomo- 
tives, cars,  and  machinery,  and  issues  instructions  cov- 
ering standard  designs  and  methods  for  the  guidance 
of  the  maintenance-of-equipment  department.  He  keeps 
a  record  in  detail  of  all  the  locomotives,  cars,  and 
machinery  of  the  company,  and  all  standard  drawings 


r 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT 


127 


relating  to  the  department,  and  examines  and  approves 
all  plans  for  shops,  engine-houses,  and  coaling  stations. 
He  is  responsible  for  proper  charges  against  foreign 
lines  for  repairs  made  to  their  equipment.  He  appoints 
mechanical  superintendents,  mechanical  and  electrical 
engineers,  inspector  of  shops,  and  general  road  foreman 
of  equipment. 

The  inspector  of  shops  inspects  the  maintenance  of 
equipment  and  the  organization  and  methods  employed. 

The  general  road  foreman  is  charged  with  knowing 
the  qualification  of  the  various  road-foremen;  the 
enforcement  of  the  rules  applying  to  enginemen ;  instruc- 
tion of  road  foremen  in  standard  practices  and  methods; 
economical  use  of  fuel,  lubricants,  and  other  engine  sup- 
plies; seeing  that  engines  actually  haul  their  rated  ton- 
nage; seeing  that  all  reports  required  of  enginemen  are 
properly  made:  personal  inspection  over  the  road  on 
engines;  assisting  in  the  investigation  of  motive-power 
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Fig.  15. — Organization  of  tlie  Mechanical  Dopartniont  of  tlic  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Sypteni 


128    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  mechanical  superintendent  has  direct  charge  of 
the  general  repair  shops  and  of  the  construction  and 
repair  work ;  keeps  records  of  cost  of  labor  and  amount 
of  material  used;  and  is  generally  responsible  for  the 
economical  management  of  the  shop.  He  advises  the 
superintendent  of  motive  power  in  cases  when  equip- 
ment requires  general  repairs  or  reconstruction  in  the 
immediate  future. 

Figure  15  shows  the  organization  of  the  Mechanical 
Department  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  System. 

The  head  of  the  mechanical  department  is  an  assistant 
vice  president  reporting  to  the  operating  \T.ce  president. 
The  engineer  of  car  construction  is  responsible  for  car 
design  and  standards  and  reports  also  to  the  operating 
vice  president. 

There  are  thirteen  officers  on  the  staff  of  the  mechani- 
cal assistant  vice  president. 

The  mechanical  engineer  is  responsible  for  the  design 
and  standards  of  motive  power  (locomotives)  and  shop 
standards. 

The  increase  in  the  size  and  the  amount  of  equipment 
required  on  a  system  whose  volume  of  traffic  continues 
to  grow,  demands  constant  additions  and  extension  of 
shop  facilities.  Such  extensions  and  betterments  are 
under  the  supervision  of  the  engineer  of  shop  extension. 

The  engineer  of  tests  conducts  tests  of  locomotives 
and  of  various  materials  required  in  their  construction 
and  other  material  used  by  the  mechanical  and  other 
departments.  The  chief  chemist  conducts  various  tests 
and  investigations  as  to  the  chemical  constituents  of 
various  materials  used  by  the  railroad.  The  character 
of  the  work  performed  by  these  officers  is  described  in 
detail  in  the  paper  on  tests,  which  will  be  found  in  the 
chapter  on  Miscellaneous  Departments. 

There   is   a  chief  electrician  in   charge   of  electrical 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  129 

work  and  standards  and  an  electrical  engineer  in  charge 
of  car  lighting. 

In  the  various  shops  of  the  mechanical  department, 
young  men  seventeen  or  eighteen  years  of  age  are 
apprenticed  to  the  company  until  they  become  of  age, 
for  the  purpose  of  training  them  in  the  various  trades 
in  which  the  shop  force  is  engaged.  These  apprentices 
are  under  the  supervision  of  the  supervisor  of  appren- 
tices, who  reports  to  the  assistant  vice  president. 

The  largest  locomotive  and  car  shops  on  the  system 
are  located  at  Topeka,  Kan.,  and  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  superintendent  of  shops,  who  reports  direct 
to  the  head  of  the  department. 

The  four  mechanical  superintendents  represent  the 
mechanical  vice  president  in  the  major  or  grand-division 
organizations.  Their  duties  and  those  of  the  officers 
reporting  to  them  have  been  previously  described. 

Reports  axd  Statistics 

The  operation  of  the  mechanical  department  is  much 
the  same  as  that  of  a  large  manufacturing  establishment 
and  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other  department 
of  a  railroad  is  susceptible  to  statistical  control.  There 
are  a  great  many  details  in  the  maintenance  of  equip- 
ment which  can  be  standardized  by  statistical  records 
so  that  any  deviation  from  the  normal  stands  out 
plainly.  The  officers  of  the  department  through  detailed 
reports  are  able  with  great  exactness  to  determine  the 
most  efficient  type  of  locomotive  or  cars  for  a  given 
service  or  the  kind  of  wheel,  spring,  or  fire  box  which 
serves  best  in  any  particular  situation.  The  number  of 
reports  and  records  made  by  various  members  of  the 
department  is  large  in  the  aggregate,  the  following 
being  a  statement  of  some  of  the  more  important  ones: 


130    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Efficiency  of  enginemen  and  firemen  report  made  by 
road  foreman  to  master  meclianic. 

Enginemen 's  performance  sheet,  showing  miles  run, 
locomotive  failures,  overtime,  lubricants  used,  tools 
used,  coal  consumed,  with  enginemen 's  saving  or  loss 
of  fuel  as  compared  with  the  average. 

Individual  locomotive  record,  kept  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  motive  power  for  each  locomotive,  showing 
the  contmuous  record  of  costs,  mileages,  etc.;  mileage 
made  in  the  period  between  classified  repairs  and 
monthly  mileage ;  cost  of  classified  repairs  of  locomotives ; 
locomotive  running — repair  statement.  This  shows 
monthly  mileage,  running  repair  cost,  general  condition, 
locomotive  failures. 

Dispatchment  report,  showing  number  of  engine 
assignments  and  cost  of  operation  of  engine-houses. 

Monthly  report  by  the  master  meclianic  on  locomo- 
tive boilers  tested  and  washed  and  stay  bolts  examined. 
Summary  of  repairs  to  passenger  and  freight  equip- 
ment and  classified  repairs  to  passenger  equipment. 
Report  on  wheels  removed,  guaranteed  springs  changed, 
and  tires  turned.  Statement  in  regard  to  tools  and 
machinery  at  various  shops. 

The  master  mechanic  makes  a  monthly  shop  operation 
report,  which  is  a  general  analysis  of  the  expenses  for 
the  month. 

"When  for  some  special  purpose  it  is  desired  to  keep 
separate  the  cost  of  any  piece  of  w^ork,  shop  orders 
are  used.  The  labor  cost  is  kept  separate  for  each  one 
of  the  shops  it  passes  through,  and  the  material  sepa- 
rated according  to  material  accounts. 

Statements  are  kept  showing  oil  and  waste  furnished 
trainmen  and  enginemen,  tools  used,  journal  bearings 
used,  received  and  on  hand,  lumber  received  and  appro- 
priated, and  material  for  freight  car  repairs. 


OPERATING  DEPAllTMEXT  131 

The  engine-house  and  road  foremen  report  to  the 
master  mechanic  monthly  the  conditions  of  locomotives 
as  determined  by  actual  inspection. 

Enginemen  report  daily  to  engine-house  foreman  the 
repairs   required  on  locomotives  used. 

Fuel  costs  the  railroad  more  than  any  other  single 
item  of  expenditure.  The  system  of  coal  accounting 
is  carried  out  in  great  detail. 

A  card  way-bill  accompanies  each  coal  car  from 
shipping  point  to  destination,  being  handled  by  the  con- 
ductor as  way-bills  are  and  left  at  destination  with  the 
agent  who  delivers  them  to  the  employee  in  charge  of 
unloading  the  coal.  On  the  back  of  the  card  way-bill 
is  a  form  giving  all  details  of  the  shipment,  which  is 
filled  out  by  such  employee  and  forwarded  to  the 
master  mechanic. 

The  superintendent  makes  a  daily  telegraphic  report 
to  the  superintendent  of  motive  power  of  the  fuel 
situation,  which  gives: 

Cars  loaded  at  mines. 
On  hand  at  coaling  stations  and  yards. 
Delivered  to  connecting  divisions. 
Consumed  on  division. 

The  fuel  foremen  report  to  the  superintendent  daily 
the  coal  unloaded  and  delivered  at  each  coaling  sta- 
tion. 

Tickets  taken  at  coal  company  tipples  are  sent  to 
the  master  mechanic  daily.  The  master  mechanic 
keeps  a  record  of  coal  received  and  used  at  each 
coaling  station  separately. 

The  superintendent  of  motive  power  at  the  end  or 
each  month  charges  each  division  or  department  with 
coal  used  by  it. 


132    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Coal-ticket  Taooks  are  issued  to  enginemen,  who  give 
them  properly  indorsed  to  employees  in  charge  of  coal- 
ing station.  This  is  done  to  keep  individual  record  of 
coal  used  by  each  engineman  and  as  check  on  total 
used. 


CHAPTER  XI 
operation— types  of  organization 

Departmental  Organization 

The  general  idea  is  that  the  division  superintendent 
cannot  at  the  same  time  do  three  things  well — conduct 
transportation,  supervise  the  overhauling  of  an  engine, 
and  keep  up  a  good  track;  that  it  takes  a  different  kind 
of  talent  and  training  for  each  of  these  three  important 
things,  and  a  man  ordinarily  is  not  at  the  same  time 
a  civil  engineer,  a  mechanical  engineer,  and  informed 
on  the  assembling  and  moving  of  trains ;  that  the  division 
of  authority  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  character 
of  the  work  to  be  performed  in  operation,  and  as  there 
are  three  separate  functions — transportation,  mainten- 
ance of  way,  and  maintenance  of  equipment — there 
should  be  three  separate  kinds  of  officials  to  attend  to 
them. 

This  is  much  the  same  proposition  as  that  a  man  goes 
to  an  oculist  for  eye  treatment,  to  a  nerve  specialist 
for  nervous  diseases,  and  to  an  aurist  for  ear  trouble, 
rather  than  to  the  family  doctor  who  knows  something 
about  them  all. 

The  departmental  advocate  proposes  to  get  the  best 
civil  engineer  and  the  best  mechanical  engineer  and 
bring  their  training  to  bear  upon  tlie  smallest  details 
of  operation  in  the  division  organization. 

In  the  departmental  form  there  is  very  little  division 
of  authority;  the  division  engineer  reports  to  the 
engineering    department    in    all    matters    the    master 

133 


134    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

mechanic  to  the  mechanical  department  in  all  mat- 
ters; while  in  the  divisional  organization  they  report 
both  to  the  division  superintendent  and  to  their  own 
departments.  As  a  general  principle,  division  of  author- 
ity is  not  good,  particularly  in  the  matter  of  discipline, 
as  there  may  not  be  thorough  supervision  of  a  particu- 
lar officer  or  employee  if  he  has  two  ''bosses." 

This  is  more  often  the  argument  of  technically  trained 
men  than  of  men  not  especially  trained.  The  civil  and 
mechanical  engineers  are  the  fathers  of  the  railroad, 
but  their  habits  of  mind  are  not  those  usual  in  the 
executive  trained  in  the  operating  school. 

During  the  period  immediately  following  construction, 
the  track  and  equipment  being  new  and  requiring  less 
maintenance  than  at  any  other  time,  conducting  trans- 
portation is  the  most  important  single  item  of  the  three 
separate  functions  of  the  operating  department.  This 
explains  in  large  part  why  the  transportation  official 
has  very  generally  been  placed  in  charge  of  the  oper- 
ating department  rather  than  the  specially  trained 
engineering  officials. 

As  the  gen-eral  manager  has  usually  come  up  through 
the  transportation  department,  he  is  likely  to  give  the 
transportation  man  in  the  divisional  unit  charge  over 
his  brothers,  and  it  has  come  about  from  this  cir- 
cumstance that  the  general  form  of  organization  is 
the  divisional  form  with  the  transportation  officer — • 
division  superintendent — in  charge. 

Divisional  Organization 

The  idea  of  this  form  of  organization  is  to  divide 
the  responsibility  of  operation  on  a  territorial  basis, 
rather  than  on  the  character  of  the  work;  to  place 
authority  over  all  the  employees  on  a  division  in  one 
official,   delegating   to   him   as   much   responsibility    as 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  135 

possible,  in  order  that  some  official  ''on  the  ground" 
may  have  authority  and  the  necessary  forces  to  act 
promptly,  particularly  in  emergencies,  avoiding  the 
delay  which  reference  of  such  matters  to  the  heads 
of  departments  involves  in  the  departmental  organiza- 
tion. 

As  to  the  objection  that  in  this  form  of  organization 
certain  employees  and  minor  officials  must  report  to 
more  than  one  officer,  it  is  urged  that  it  is  not  practi- 
cable to  have  a  strictly  departmental  organization  in  any 
event.  The  enginemen  evidently  must  report  both  to 
the  transportation  and  mechanical  departments,  the 
station  agents  to  practically  all  departments,  etc. 

In  placing  responsibility  for  derailments,  wrecks,  and 
other  accidents,  the  cause  must  be  definitely  determined ; 
that  is,  whether  it  occurred  through  a  defect  in  track, 
defective  equipment,  or  a  disregard  of  the  rules  for 
conducting  transportation.  The  division  superintendent, 
being  in  charge  of  the  three  departments,  is  supposed 
to  be  able  to  determine  this,  being  free  from  depart- 
mental bias. 

When  operation  of  the  road  is  threatened  or  actually 
suspended  by  washouts,  land  slides,  or  wrecks,  the 
division  superintendent  can  gather  all  the  forces  on  the 
division — transportation  men,  road  men,  shop  men,  and 
mechanics — in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  as  they  are 
directly  under  his  authority  and  accustomed  to  taking 
orders  from  him. 

Departmental  Versus  DmsioNAL 

One  particular  objection  urged  against  tlie  depart- 
mental form  is  the  jealousy  between  departments,  and 
there  is  no  question  that  it  is  natural  and  does  exist 
among  men  specially  trained  along  different  lines.  On 
the  other  hand  there  is  just  as  certainly  jealousy  between 


136     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

divisions,  each  striving  for  superiority  in  efficiency — 
which  the  statistics  indicate.  This,  however,  is  not  an 
unmixed  evil ;  on  the  contrary,  it  is  a  positive  advantage 
if  not  carried  too  far.  The  answer  to  both  objections 
is  that  the  supervision  from  above  should  restrict  the 
jealousy  and  competition  between  departments  and 
between  divisions  within  reasonable  limits. 

In  case  of  accidents  requiring  the  prompt  assembling 
of  large  forces  of  men  under  one  responsible  head,  it 
is  provided  in  all  departmental  organization  that  all 
forces  on  the  division  are  to  be  available  to  the  officer 
charged  with  maintaining  the  operation,  whether  he  be 
the  engineer  or  the  superintendent. 

The  strongest  point  in  favor  of  the  divisional  organi- 
zation when  carried  to  the  extreme  is  the  large  measure 
of  authority  vested  in  a  division  superintendent  who  can 
when  occasion  demands  act  promptly  and  report  to  his 
general  superintendent  or  general  manager  afterwards. 
Supervision  from  a  distance,  however  well  trained  and 
wise,  cannot  in  many  situations  take  the  place  of  the 
intimate  knowledge  and  close  contact  with  conditions  of 
a  local  officer.  Such  supervision  involves  time,  and  time 
is  often  the  essence  of  the  problem  needing  solution. 

On  short  roads  or  small  systems  of,  say,  five  hundred 
or  six  hundred  miles,  a  departmental  organization  is 
generally  used,  as  the  general  superintendent  in  such 
cases  has  an  intimate  knowledge  of  general  conditions 
and  close  contact  with  the  heads  of  the  engineering  and 
mechanical  departments. 

Above  the  divisional  unit  the  organization  is  largely 
departmental  on  many  railroads,  particularly  the  head- 
quarters organization. 

An  attempt  at  a  more  scientific  arrangement  has  been 
made  in  what  is  termed  the  unit  system  of  organization, 
which  has  been  tried  experimentally  on  the  Harriman 
Lines  at  the  suggestion  of  Major  Charles  Hines,  a  staff 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  137 

officer  of  those  lines  charged  with  the  investigation  of 
railroad  organization. 

Design  Versus  Execution 

There  are  two  elements  in  all  work — the  plan  or 
method,  and  the  executive  policy. 

For  instance,  on  a  road  constructed  at  the  lowest 
possible  original  cost  in  an  undeveloped  territory,  the 
traffic  density  increases  as  the  railroad  develops  its 
resources.  When  the  traffic  reaches  a  sufficiently  large 
volume,  the  question  of  reducing  grades,  revising  the 
alignment,  and  reconstructing  the  road  in  large  part  to 
effect  economies  in  the  cost  of  operation  will  come  up 
for  solution.  The  method  and  designs  (plans,  maps,  etc.) 
for  reducing  the  grades  and  revising  the  line,  together 
with  the  cost,  will  be  worked  out  by  the  construction 
division  of  the  engineering  department;  the  time  for 
making  the  improvement  will  be  decided  by  the  executive 
head  of  the  railroad  and  the  board  of  directors.  Or  it 
may  be  more  economical,  if  the  permanent  way  is  strong 
enough,  to  defer  the  very  heavy  expenditures  which  such 
radical  improvements  involve  and  increase  the  traffic- 
cariying  capacity  of  the  road  by  using  larger  locomo- 
tives, thereby  making  it  possible  to  increase  the  length 
of  the  train  which  may  be  moved  by  one  engine.  If 
the  heavier  locomotives  are  to  be  constructed,  the  head 
of  the  mechanical  department — superintendent  of  motive 
power  or  whatever  his  title  may  be — will  design  an 
engine  meeting  the  operating  conditions;  the  executive 
will  decide  in  this  case  when  such  operation  shall  be 
undertaken. 

The  chief  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way  will  design 
the  cross  section  of  the  roadbed  and  track  section  and 
the  track  forces  will  in  all  cases  maintain  the  work  in 
accordance  with  his  plans,  but  the  actual  work  is  under 


138    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  supervision  of  the  officer  charged  with  track  main- 
tenance. 

One  class  of  officers  determines  how  work  is  to  be 
done,  and  another  class  does  it;  the  one  class  is  charged 
with  standards,  the  other  with  the  execution  of  work  in 
accordance  with  such  standards.  The  officers  responsible 
for  such  standards  are  the  representatives  (usually  the 
heads)  of  their  departments  advising  the  chief  operating 
officer,  and  are  sometimes  called  staff  officers  as  dis- 
tinguished from  those  officers  charged  with  the  execution 
of  the  work  who  are  called  line  officers. 

On  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  there  are  a  chief 
of  motive  power,  responsible  for  standards,  reporting 
directly  to  the  vice  president  in  charge  of  the  operating 
department,  and  a  general  superintendent  of  motive 
power,  reporting  to  the  general  manager.  The  first  is 
a  staff  officer  responsible  for  standards,  and  the  second 
a  line  officer  responsible  for  the  actual  operation  of  the 
mechanical  department. 

The  work  of  these  staff  officers  in  connection  with 
design  has  been  taken  up  in  previous  chapters  entitled 
''Engineering"  and  ''Mechanical  Department."  Thej 
have  been  referred  to  in  this  section  in  so  far  as 
they  are  concerned  with  actual  operation. 

Reports  and  Statistical  Control 

Comparing  the  operations  of  a  railroad  system  mth 
those  of  a  manufacturer,  we  find  that  the  engineers  build 
the  plant,  the  operating  department  manufactures  the 
transportation,  and  the  traffic  department  sells  it.  There 
is,  however,  one  marked  difference  between  the  opera- 
tions of  an  ordinary  manufacturer  and  those  of  a  rail- 
road company.  The  former  from  the  nature  of  his  plant 
may  give  all  his  operations  close  detailed  supervision; 
the  operations  of  a  railroad  extend  over  very  wide  areas. 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  139 

and  the  supervision  over  all  its  employees  must  be  very 
much  more  general. 

Contrary  to  general  belief,  much  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  business  of  a  railroad  company  is  competitive, 
not  only  as  to  the  through  business  with  other  railroad 
companies,  but  as  to  a  large  part  of  the  producers  on  its 
line  as  against  the  producers  on  other  lines.  The  general 
impression  that  all  so-called  local  business  is  non-com- 
petitive is  not  correct,  for  much  of  the  business  done  is 
based  on  competition  in  a  common  market.  While  the 
business  actually  done  is  local  to  the  line  performing 
the  service,  it  comes  into  competition  with  similar  busi- 
ness on  other  lines  coming  into  the  same  market.^  For 
these  reasons  the  margin  of  profit  in  the  transportation 
is  small,  and  supervision  must  be  exercised  to  the  great- 
est possible  extent  which  circumstances  will  allow. 

The  authority  of  a  general  manager  must  be  exercised 
through  many  assisting  hands.  For  this  reason  the 
whole  property  is  divided  into  operating  units,  the 
operating  results  on  one  being  compared  with  those  of 
the  others  and  operations  for  a  given  period  being 
compared  with  the  corresponding  preceding  period,  as* 
previous  day,  same  month  in  previous  year,  or  a  previous 
year  entire.  In  making  comparisons  it  is  necessary  to 
have  standards  of  measurement  and  therefore  to  estab- 
lish various  units. 

The  leading  American  units  are  ton  mile,  passenger 
mile,  and  train  mile;  average  trainload  (tons  and  pas- 
sengers) ;  average  carload  (tons) ;  average  length  of 
haul ;  average  receipts  per  ton  mile  and  passenger  mile ; 
average  density  of  traffic;  and  operating  ratio,  the 
percentage  of  the  total  receipts  which  is  paid  out  for 
operating  expenses. 


'  How   Btronfrly   conipotition   affocts  transportatiotw  is   clearly  shown   in 
the  treatises  on  freight  rates  which  are  a  part  of  this  course. 


140    KAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

All  the  information  for  obtaining  these  units  is  derived 
from  the  way-bills  and  ticket  sales  by  the  accounting 
department.  The  results  obtained  by  the  accounting 
department  as  to  the  monthly  statement  are  not  avail- 
able, however,  until  after  the  middle  of  the  following 
month.  It  is  necessary  to  have  a  daily  means  of  check- 
ing operations,  and  the  train  sheets  afford  such  means. 
These  sheets  show  every  train  moved,  the  number  of 
cars  empty  and  loaded,  the  number  of  passengers,  and 
whether  or  not  the  schedule  has  been  maintained.  The 
daily  train  sheets  go  to  the  division  superintendent,  and 
to  the  general  superintendent  as  well.  The  monthly 
reports  from  the  auditing  department  go  to  these  officials 
and  in  addition  to  the  general  manager,  president,  and 
board  of  directors. 

The  superintendent  receives  daily  reports  showing  (1) 
the  number  of  through  trains  of  loaded  cars ;  (2)  number 
of  through  trains  of  empty  cars;  (3)  all  trains,  freight 
and  passenger,  with  number  of  cars  and  tonnage, 
together  with  delays  and  their  causes;  (4)  condition  of 
all  yards  on  his  line;  (5)  through  cars  received  and 
forwarded  at  each  terminal  and  important  intermediate 
junctions ;  (6)  cars  on  hand  and  number  of  cars  required. 

He  keeps  a  tabulated  statement  of  these  statistics  for 
comparison  with  the  same  day  and  month  of  the  previous 
year.  That  is,  his  standard  of  measure  is  previous  per- 
formance rather  than  the  absolute  figures  themselves. 

The  reports  for  the  general  superintendent  vary  some- 
what with  the  character  of  the  traffic  of  his  line.  He 
usually  receives,  however,  daily  reports  covering  the 
following  general  subjects:  (1)  delays  to  passenger 
trains;  (2)  freight  cars  handled  and  switch  engines  in 
service;  (3)  general  condition  in  every  large  traffic  cen- 
ter as  to  wheat,  cotton,  coal,  oil,  and  other  commodities ; 
(4)  general  condition  in  the  w^hole  district  as  to  one  or 
more  commodities  which  are  of  importance  to  his  line; 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  141 

(5)  engine  conditions  at  each  terminal  and  at  other 
important  points;  (6)  number  of  cars  of  company 
material  unloaded,  and  of  cars  ready  for  loading  for 
each  division;  (7)  through  freight  engines  by  divisions, 
showing  mileage  made  daily;  total  number  of  through 
freight  engines  on  the  train  sheet;  number  out  of  shop 
and  available  for  service;  number  coming  out  of  the 
shop  within  the  next  twenty-four  hours ;  number  in  shop 
not  coming  out;  total  mileage  made  by  through  freight 
engines,  with  the  average  of  all;  special  engine  assign- 
ments classified  as  way  freight,  pick-ups,  passengers, 
switch,  etc.  He  also  receives  the  following  car  reports: 
(1)  cars  moved  by  divisions;  (2)  cars  short  by  divisions; 

(3)  conditions  of  yards  as  to  space  available  for  cars; 

(4)  total    number    of    cars    on    storage    at   5    A.    M. ; 

(5)  merchandise  cars  on  hand;  (6)  merchandise  cars 
unloaded  previous  day;  (7)  number  of  cars  of  the  several 
classes  of  freight  exchanged,  with  the  important  con- 
necting lines;  (8)  detailed  condition  of  special  commodi- 
ties at  important  points,  loaded  cars  moved,  and 
condition  of  yards;  (9)  car  supply  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  such  commodities  as  grain,  coal,  and  live  stock. 

The  absolute  figures  of  these  reports  have  little  value 
for  an  officer  not  familiar  with  the  previous  operation 
of  the  road.  His  measure  of  efficiency,  like  that  of  the 
division  superintendent,  is  largely  previous  performance 
and  the  comparison  of  the  operation  of  one  division  with 
other  divisions  similarly  situated. 

It  is  physically  impossible  for  the  general  manager  of 
a  railroad  system  to  examine  all  the  detailed  reports  just 
mentioned.  They  must  be  condensed  and  a  general  state- 
ment of  conditions  presented  to  him,  as  his  supei*\4sion 
can  only  be  very  general.  He  usually  receives  daily 
reports  about  as  follows:  (1)  trains  and  cars  moved 
over  several  principal  divisions;  (2)  passenger-train 
delays;   (3)   position  of  fast  important  through  trains 


*142    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

both  regular  and  special;  (4)  total  number  of  cars 
handled  and  switch  engines  in  service;  (5)  detailed  car 
movement  with  regard  to  the  most  important  traffic 
centers  and  special  commodities;  (6)  rejjort  of  weather 
conditions  on  the  various  divisions;  (7)  car  detentions. 

He  receives  monthly  reports  from  the  accounting 
department  on  the  expenditures  for  maintenance  of  road- 
way, and  separately  on  equipment,  the  statement  being 
compared  with  previous  periods.  These  comparative 
statements  explain  in  detail  all  large  increases  and 
decreases  in  amount  of  traffic.  He  receives  figures  of  a 
similar  nature  in  reference  to  the  conducting  of  trans- 
portation; a  statement  of  bad-order  cars  compared  with 
previous  period;  a  statement  of  empty-car  mileage  as 
compared  with  total  car  movement.  He  also  receives 
a  statement  of  each  important  station  showing  traffic 
received  and  for^varded  by  cars  and  by  tons,  station 
expenses,  yard  expenses,  and  number  of  cars  inter- 
changed with  connecting  roads. 

The  monthly  reports  from  the  accounting  department 
divide  operating  expense  in  much  detail,  as  it  is  very 
important  to  know  the  cost  of  the  many  separate  opera- 
tions which  go  to  make  up  the  total  in  order  to  exercise 
close  supervision  over  it. 

The  general  manager  compares  such  figures  with 
records  of  previous  performance  on  his  own  road,  and, 
where  available,  with  records  of  operations  of  other 
roads  similarly  situated.  It  is  apparent  that  the  chief 
reliance  of  the  head  of  the  operating  department  in  exer- 
cising his  general  supervision  is  an  accurate  statistical 
record. 

Statistical  records  are  of  little  practical  use  unless 
they  are  kept  in  such  a  manner  that  they  may  be  used 
to  determine  proper  action  in  the  future;  otherwise  the 
interest  in  them  is  purely  academic.  For  instance,  an 
engine  has  a  certain  tonnage  rating;  does  it  in  operation 


OPERATING  DEPARTxMENT  143 

actually  equal  this  rating,  and  what  is  its  maintenance 
cost  as  compared  with  an  engine  of  another  class!  The 
trainmaster  watches  the  performance  of  the  engine  on 
the  line;  the  mechanical  department  also  watches  its 
road  performance  and  its  records  for  cost  of  main- 
tenance in  the  shop. 

There  are  certain  conditions  which  require  special 
supervision  at  times,  one  of  the  most  important  being 
the  prevention  of  blockades  at  important  terminal  and 
connecting  points.  The  supply  and  distribution  of  cars 
when  business  is  normal  is  also  a  subject  which  requires 
special  attention. 

Extreme  care  must  be  exercised  in  using  the  several 
methods  mentioned  above  for  the  purpose  of  comparing 
the  relative  operating  efificiency  of  different  roads.  For 
instance,  to  compare  the  ability  of  one  general  manager 
with  that  of  another  on  the  basis  of  operating  ratio  is 
not  fair  without  making  allowances  for  conditions  sur- 
rounding each  road.  One  of  the  principal  factors  affect- 
ing the  operating  ratio  is  gross  earnings,  with  which  the 
operating  manager  has  very  little  to  do.  The  gross 
earnings  are  based  on  the  amount  of  traffic  moved  by  the 
company,  but  the  duty  of  obtaining  this  traffic  is  dele- 
gated to  the  traffic  department.  The  amount  to  be  spent 
in  the  maintenance  of  road  and  equipment  is  decided 
upon  usually  by  the  executive  committee  of  the  board. 
The  general  expense,  which  includes  salaries  of  general 
officers,  law,  insurance,  etc.,  is  not  controlled  to  any 
extent  by  the  operating  officer.  In  fact,  the  only  item 
he  can  materially  affect  is  cost  of  transportation,  \\hicli 
is  only  about  fifty  per  cent  of  the  total  cost  of  operation. 

Further  gross  earnings  may  be  followed  by  the  traffic 
department's  demands  for  an  increased  number  of  fast 
trains ;  these  cost  more  to  operate,  and,  while  they  have 
a  beneficial  effect  on  general  results,  make  a  poor  opera- 
ting showing  for  the  general  manager  of  a  road  having 


144    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

a  large  percentage  of  such  traffic,  if  certain  units  of 
comparison  are  used,  as  ton-mile  cost.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  it  is  possible  for  a  road  to  make  more  net  money 
with  a  high  operating  ratio  than  with  a  lower  one. 

The  comparison  with  other  divisions  of  the  same  road, 
or  with  divisions  of  foreign  roads  on  the  basis  of  ton 
mile  or  train  mile  alone  means  little.  One  division  may 
have  grades  of  16  feet  to  the  mile,  the  other  grades  of 
70  feet  to  the  mile.  With  engines  of  the  same  tractive 
power,  the  same  traffic  can  be  moved  in  two  trains  on  the 
low  grade  line  that  would  require  five  trains  on  the 
other. 

When  grades  are  the  same  and  the  engines  used  are  of 
a  different  class,  a  fair  comparison  can  be  made  on  the 
basis  of  gross  ton  and  traction  ton  miles.  The  gross  ton 
mile  is  the  weight  of  car  and  lading  multiplied  by  the 
distance  moved;  the  traction  ton  mile  is  the  product  of 
the  weight  on  locomotive  drivers  and  miles  moved.  The 
gross  ton  mile  is  the  measure  of  work;  the  traction 
ton  mile  is  the  measure  of  force  performing  it.  If  the 
gross  ton  mile  per  traction  ton  mile  can  be  increased, 
the  efficiency  is  increased;  if  it  can  be  done  at  less  cost 
there  is  greater  economy. 

The  cost  of  maintenance  varies  widely  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  territory  traversed.  It  will  evidently  be 
larger  for  a  roadbed  built  across  a  swamp  than  in  a 
rolling  prairie  country,  well  drained. 

The  cost  per  ton  mile  on  perishable  freight  will  evi- 
dently be  higher  than  on  coal;  the  one  requires  fast 
service,  and  fast  service  means  a  decrease  in  the  train 
load.  On  lines  hauling  high-grade  merchandise  the 
lading  per  car  will  be  less  than  on  such  commodities  as 
coal,  lumber,  or  grain.  In  the  one  case  the  haul  may 
involve  5  tons  of  lading  hauled  1,000  miles,  the  net  ton 
mileage  being  5,000  tons  per  car;  a  coal  car  carrying  50 
tons   hauled   100  miles  would  have   the   same   net   ton 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT  145 

mileage,  but  evidently  the  cost  of  transportation  would 
be  very  much  less. 

Comparison  with  previous  performance  on  the  same 
division  or  on  divisions  similarly  located  is  valuable. 
For  instance:  if  the  average  tonnage  per  train  is 
increased  on  the  division  over  that  of  a  previous  period, 
evidently  the  operation  is  more  economical. 

Comparisons  are  always  misleading  when  the  physical 
characters  of  the  lines  vary,  when  the  commodities 
hauled  are  unlike,  and  when  they  demand  different 
classes  of  service,  as  perishable  freight  and  coal. 

Examples  of  Operating  Organization 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railivay 

The  vice  president  in  charge  of  operation  and  con- 
struction is  at  the  head  of  the  operating  department. 
His  staff  consists  of  twelve  officers,  as  shown  in  Figure 
16,  whose  duties  are  as  follows : 

The  head  of  the  mechanical  department  is  an  assistant 
to  vice  president.  He  has  charge  of  all  mechanical  mat- 
ters, that  is  the  designing  of  locomotives  and  the  main- 
tenance of  all  the  equipment  of  the  company.  The 
mechanical  organization  is  described  in  detail  in  the 
chapter  on  the  Mechanical  Department  and  will  not  be 
repeated  here. 

The  engineer  of  car  construction  reports  direct  to  the 
vice  president  of  operation  and  is  a  staff  officer, 
responsible  for  the  designs  and  standards  of  car  con- 
struction. 

The  superintendent  of  transportation  is  charged  with 
the  distribution  of  both  passenger  and  freight  c^rs 
between  system  lines,  including  Pullman  cars.  Through 
four  car  accountants  he  keeps  track  of  company  cars 
on  foreign  lines  and  foreign  cars  on  company  lines,  as 
well  as  the  distribution  of  cars  between  svstom  lines. 


146     RAILWAY  OROANTZATTON  AND  MANAGEMENT 


OPERATING  DEPARTMENT 


147 


p-|  Supt.  of    Telegraph 


Vice  Pros. 

and 
Gen.  Mgr. 


Supl.  of    Freight 
Transportation 


Asst.  Gen.  JVlgr.  of 
Transportation 


Gen. Supt. 

south  of 

Albany 


Oiv.  Suots. 
(3) 


Sig.Supv. 
(4) 


Supt.  of   Pass.  Schedules] 
Engr.  of    Maint.  of   Sig.l 


Sig.  Engr.  I Chief    Supv.  of    Sifl. 


Gen. Supt, 

I      west  of 

Albany 


Div.  Supts.[- 
(7) 


Sig.Supv. 


|Engr.of  Maint.  of    Sig.  [ 


Gen.    Supt. 
Electric     Division 


I — I  Supt.  of    Electric    Div.  | 
]  Engr.  of    Maint.  of   Way  I 


Signal    Engineer 


Asst.  Gen.  Mgr.  of 
Maint.   of    Way 


Engr.   of     Maint.  of   Way 


Special    Staff 


Designing 


Chief 
Engineer 


Chief    Engr. 

of 
Elec.     Tract. 


jEiec.  Engr.  | 

]  Supt     of   Power  | 

]  Engr.  of  Power  Stations] 

■jSupt.  of    Elec.  Equip.| 

~|Signal   Engr.  Electric    Zone  | 
— |Prin.  Asst.    Engr.  | 
— |Special    Staff    Engrs.| 
— JEngr.  of    Construction  I- 


Supt. 
Motive    Power 


4    Div.Supts.of 
Motive  Power 


Master 
Mech. 


Supt.  of 
Rolling  Stock 


2    Div.  Master 
Car  Builders 


Engr.    Struct. 

Mech.  Engr. 

Design  Engr. 

Architect^ 

— I  Engr.    Grade 
Crossings 


*—  Dist.Engrs.t2) 


— I  1   Gen, 
Car   Insp. 


I  Assist.    15)  I 


-]  Supt.  of    Dining    Ser 


vice  I 


-|Asst.   Gen.  Mgr.  Statistics  and    Contracts  | 


-JGen.   Storekeeper  [ 

Flo.  17. — Operating  Department  of  the  New  York  Central  Lines — East  of 

Buffalo 


148    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


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OPERATING  DEPARTMENT         149 

The  superintendent  of  telegraph  with  two  assistants 
has  charge  of  all  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  and 
communication  on  the  system. 

The  commissioner  of  safety  attends  to  all  matters 
relating  to  the  ' '  safety-first  movements ' '  in  the  education 
of  employees  and  the  traveling  public  and  secures  data 
for  the  purpose  of  making  such  rules  and  regulations 
as  to  operation  as  will  tend  to  decrease  the  injury  to 
persons  and  the  loss  of  property.  He  travels  over  the 
system  lecturing  to  employees  and  showing  the  practical 
application  of  his  advice  with  the  aid  of  moving  pictures 
and  other  devices.  The  general  watch  and  clock  inspec- 
tor's duties  are  obvious. 

The  chief  engineer  of  the  system  (and  therefore  the 
head  of  the  engineering  department)  reports  to  the 
vice  president  of  operation.  His  organization  has  been 
described  in  the  chapter  on  Engineering. 

There  are  four  general  managers,  each  with  an  inde- 
pendent organization  of  transportation,  engineering,  and 
mechanical  officers.  The  usual  medical  and  police 
officers  are  included  in  the  organization. 

There  are  five  general  superintendents  and  four  chief 
engineers  reporting  to  the  four  general  managers.  There 
are  five  district  engineers,  four  mechanical  superintend- 
ents, and  twenty-one  division  superintendents  reporting 
to  the  five  general  superintendents.  That  is,  there  are 
four  constituent  general  manager's  organizations,  simi- 
larly constituted  within  the  operating  department  of 
the  system. 

New  York   Central  Railroad 

Figure  17  shows  the  operating  organization  of  the 
New  York  Central  Lines  East  of  Buffalo.  It  is  inter- 
esting by  way  of  contrast  to  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe  organization,  the  one  being  strictly  depart- 
mental and  the  other  divisional. 


150    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  organization  of  the  general  superintendent  of  the 
electric  division  and  that  of  the  chief  engineer  are  inter- 
esting as  showing  the  character  of  organization  required 
for  operation  with  the  electrified  zones  of  steam  rail- 
roads. 


Organisation  of  the  Pennsylvania  System 

The  recent  reorganization  of  the  Pennsylvania  System 
is  an  attempt  to  break  aAvay  from  the  evident  evils  of  too 
great  concentration  of  authority.  The  higher  officers 
found  that  the  lower  officials  were  passing  up  problems 
that  should  be  handled  by  them,  resulting  in  delay  and 
a  general  slowing  down  of  the  whole  organization.  There- 
fore, it  was  decided  to  split  the  system  into  four  operat- 
ing regions  under  the  general  authority  of  an  operating 
vice  president  located  in  Philadelphia.  This  officer  was 
given  complete  authority  over  all  the  problems  of  trans- 
portation, of  maintenance  of  way,  and  of  equipment.  His 
staff  consists  of  four  regional  vice  presidents,  a  vice 
president  in  charge  of  personnel,  and  the  other  officers 
shown  on  the  chart. 

The  organization  in  each  region  is  carried  out  on  a 
divisional  basis  as  if  each  were  a  separate  railroad  or- 
ganization. That  is  to  say,  the  general  superintendents, 
together  with  the  division  superintendents  reporting  to 
them,  are  responsible  not  merely  for  getting  the  trains 
over  the  road  but  also  for  the  track,  ballast,  bridges,  and 
general  condition  of  the  rolling  stock.  The  regional  gen- 
eral managers  have  on  their  staffs  representatives  of  the 
traffic  department,  purchasing  department,  accounting 
department,  etc.  These  officers  are  carried  on  the  pay 
rolls  of  their  respective  departments  but  report  to  the 
regional  officers  on  all  local  matters,  so  that  the  region 
becomes  a  real  railroad  imit. 


TEST    QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  assignment.  The  answers  are  not 
to  be  sent  to  the  University. 

1.  On  what  is  the  successful  manufacture  of  goods  con- 
tingent ? 

2.  What  are  the  two  chief  elements  in  any  undertaking  ? 

3.  Does  the  business  of  transportation  differ  materially 
from  other  commercial  or  manufacturing  enterprises? 

4.  What  department  is  in  touch  with  the  investing  public? 

5.  In  what  way  does  the  public  come  in  contact  with  the 
operating  department? 

6.  To  Avhat  department  of  a  manufacturing  enterprise 
does  the  traffic  department  of  a  railroad  correspond? 

7.  AVhat  are  the  divisions  of  the  financial  department? 

8.  What  department  determines  the  standards  of  equip- 
ment? 

9.  In  what  divisions  may  the  representatives  of  a  corpor- 
ation be  assigned? 

10.  What  functions  are  performed  by  the  stockholders? 

11.  Are  the  directors  of  the  company  subject  to  the  dic- 
tates of  the  stockholders? 

12.  What  is  the  average  amount  held  by  each  holder  of 
railroad  securities? 

13.  How  is  the  chairman  of  the  board  of  directors  selected? 

14.  On  what  qualifications  were  the  presidents  of  the  earlier 
railroads  selected? 

15.  How  does  the  executive  department  of  the  Nashville, 
Chattanooga  &  St.  Louis  Railway  differ  from  that  of  the  Nor- 
folk &  Western  Railway? 

16.  In  the  Harriman  Liii<>  organization  what  were  the 
functions  of  the  director  of  nuiintenance  and  operation? 

17.  By  whom  are  stock  certificates  signed? 

18.  Who  attends  to  the  registration  of  stock? 

19.  Who  is  custodian  of  the  funds  secured  from  opera- 
tion? 

151 


152    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

20.  What  is  the  relationship  of  general  counsel  to  the  com- 
pany ? 

21.  When  a  railroad  company  is  unable  to  buy  equipment 
outright  how  is  the  purchase  consummated? 

22.  Through  what  department  do  the  carriers  sometimes 
ratify  traffic  agreements? 

23.  What  are  the  functions  of  district  or  state  solicitors? 

24.  What  are  the  divisions  of  the  work  of  the  engineering 
department  ? 

25.  How  is  the  work  for  construction  purposes  divided? 

26.  What  are  residencies? 

27.  For  what  purpose  is  excavated  material  observed? 

28.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  office  engineer? 

.  29.     For  what  purpose  is  the  reconstruction  of  a  railroad 
undertaken? 

30.  What   advantage   is   obtained   through   reduction   of 
grades  ? 

31.  What  necessitates  track  elevation? 

32.  For  what  reasons  are  additional  main  line  tracks  con- 
structed ? 

33.  What  was  the  cost  of  constructing  the  Pennsylvania 
Terminal  at  New  York? 

34.  What  led  to  the  construction  of  the  yards  at  Clearing, 
111. 

35.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  engineer  of  construction? 

36.  What  duties  devolve  upon  the  locating  engineer? 

37.  To  whom  do  the  resident  engineers  report  ? 

38.  What  two  classes  of  work  are  involved  in  bridge  con- 
struction ? 

39.  What  necessitates  extraordinary  inspection  of  material 
entering  into  the  construction  of  bridges? 

40.  What  is  the  distinction  between  classification  yards  and 
storage  yards? 

41.  Were   all   roads   originally   constructed   on  the   same 
standard  ? 

42.  Why  is  sand  the  best  material  to  be  employed  in  track 
elevation? 

43.  On  the  New  York  Central  Line  what  is  the  title  of  the 
officer  in  charge  of  track  elevation? 

44.  What  are  the  duties  of  district  engineers? 

45.  The  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way  may  be  known  by 
what  titles? 

46.  With  what  feature  is  the  engineer  of  water  supply 
concerned  ? 

47.  What  advantage  is  obtamed  by  the  establishment  of 
timber-treating  plants  ? 


TEST  QUESTIONS  153 

48.  What  was  one  of  the  first  electrified  zones? 

49.  What  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  electrified 
zones  elsewhere? 

50.  What  is  the  length  of  the  electrified  zone  on  the  Chi- 
cago, Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound? 

51.  What  voltage  is  received  at  substations  of  this  line? 

52.  What  voltage  is  delivered  direct  to  locomotives? 

53.  W^hat  is  the  tractive  power  of  the  Mallet  steam  loco- 
motive as  compared  with  the  electric  locomotive? 

54.  What  is  meant  by  rogoncrative  braking? 

55.  On  the  New  York  Central  are  overhead  conductors 
employed  as  well  as  a  third  rail? 

56.  AVhat  is  the  objection  to  the  adoption  of  electrifica- 
tion as  a  motive  power  generally? 

57.  How  does  the  engineering  organization  of  the  Louis- 
ville &  Na.shville  differ  from  that  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe  ? 

58.  For  the  purpose  of  operation  how  is  a  road  divided? 

59.  What  may  be  said  to  be  the  average  length  of  divisions  ? 

60.  To  whom  do  the  section  forces  report? 

61.  Eliminating  density  of  traffic,  what  mileage  may  be 
handled  efficiently  by  one  division  organization? 

62.  How  does  the  average  length  of  division  on  the  Louis- 
ville &  Nashville  compare  with  that  on  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
&  Pacific? 

63.  How  is  a  district  distinguished  from  a  division? 

64.  How  does  the  district  organization  of  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  compare  with  that  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington 
&  Quincy? 

65.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  general  superintendent? 

66.  Under  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  organization 
with  Avhat  is  the  superintendent  of  transportation  concerned? 

67.  Outline  the  functions  of  the  mechanical  superintendent. 

68.  What  are  major  divisions? 

69.  With  what  is  the  general  manager  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania system  charged? 

70.  Sketch  briefly  the  qualifications  for  a  successful  local 
agent. 

71.  Briefly  describe  the  arrangement  of  the  South  Water 
Street  station  of  the  Illinois  Central  at  Chicago. 

72.  Summarize  the  freight-house  organization  of  this  prop- 
erty. 

73.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  yardmaster? 

74.  Into  what  ten  divisions  mav  cars  be  assembled? 

75.  What  is  a  "hump  yard"?  ' 

76.  What  is  understood  by  train-dispatching? 


154    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

77.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  trainmaster? 

78.  To  whom  docs  the  chief  train  dispatcher  report? 

79.  How  are  trainmen  notified  to  report  for  duty? 

80.  To  whom  do  freight  train  crews  report? 

81.  What  is  the  daily  number  of  scheduled  passenger  trains 
at  the  Northwestern  Terminal  at  Chicago? 

82.  Wliat  is  the  telautograph? 

83.  What  system  is  employed  at  this  terminal  for  the  dis- 
patch of  trains? 

84.  How    is    the    United    States    mail    handled    at    this 
terminal  ? 

85.  With    what    duties    is    the    commissary    department 
charged  ? 

86.  Over  what  employees  has  the  station  master  jurisdic- 
tion? 

87.  Who  has  charge  of  the  power  plant  at  the  terminal? 

88.  With  what  is  the  department  of  maintenance  of  way 
charged? 

89.  In  matters  affecting  standards  of  track,  to  whom  does 
the  division  engineer  report? 

90.  In  the  event  of  a  wreck,  who  may  have  direct  charge  of 
all  track  forces  ? 

91.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  roadmaster? 

92.  Who  has  charge  of  the  section  gang? 

93.  What  is  the  organization  of  the  bridges  and  buildings 
force  ? 

94.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  signal  supervisor? 

95.  With  what  is  a  master  mechanic  charged? 

96.  What  division  of  the  operating  department  maintains 
the  equipment? 

97.  How  may  locomotives  be  classed? 

98.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  tractive  power? 

99.  What  are  the  two  cardinal  principles  in  car  construc- 
tion? 

100.  What  object  is  attained  by  records  indicating  all  costs 
of  maintenance  of  equipment? 

101.  Summarize  the  various  features  of  engine  repairs. 

102.  What  arc  the  duties  of  the  road  foreman  of  engines? 

103.  What  kinds  of  tests  are  conducted  by  the  engineer  of 
tests? 

104.  What  are  some  of  the  reports  and  statistics  kept  by 
the  mechanical  department? 

105.  What  is  the  distinction  between  departmental  organi- 
zation and  divisional  organization? 

106.  On  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  with  what  is  the  chief 
of  motive  power  concerned? 


TEST  QUESTIONS  155 

107.  Is  the  greater  part  of  business  of  railways  competitive 
or  non-competitive  ? 

108.  What  reports  does  the  general  superintendent  usually 
receive  ? 

109.  How  are  these  reports  condensed  for  the  general  man- 
ager's use? 

110.  Will  the  cost  per  ton  per  mile  on  perishable  freight 
be  higher  than  on  dead  freight  ? 


V 


RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND 
MANAGEMENT 


ONE  OP  A  SERIES  OF  TEXTS  ON  TRAFFIC  MANAGEMENT 


JAMES  PEABODY 

Late  Statistician 
Atchiflon,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company 


PART  2 

THE  TRAFFIC.  ACCOUNTING.  AND  MISCELLANEOUS 
DEPARTMENTS 


La  Salle  ExtensioaUniversity 
•    CKicagfo     - 


952-C 


TRAFFIC  MANAGEMENT  COURSE 


The  subjects  fisted  below  constitute  the  basic  material  of 
a  course  in  Traffic  Management.  This  course  is  especially 
designed  to  meet  the  constantly  growing  demand  for  efficiently 
trained  men  in  railroad  and  industrisJ  traffic  work  and  to 
meet  the  demand  for  men  competent  to  direct  the  work  of  comr 
mercial  organizations  and  traffic  bureaus* 

Atlas  of  Traffic  Maps 

The  Traffic  Field 

Traffic  Glossary 

Transportation  in  the  U.  S. 

Some  Ways  of  Reducing  Freight  Charges 

Freight  Classification 

LaSalle   Consolidated   Freight   Classification 

Freight  Rates — Official  Classification  Terri- 
tory AND  Eastern  Canada 

Freight  Rates — Western  Territory 

Freight  Rates — Southern  Territory 

Bases  for  Freight  Charges 

The  Bill  of  Lading 

Routing  Freight  Shipments 

Freight  Claims 

Investigation  of  Freight  Claims 

A  Primary  Lesson  in  Transit 

Demurrage  and  Car  Efficiency 

Application  of  Agency  Tariffs 

Publication  and  Filing  of  Tariffs 

The  Expreso  Service  and  Rates 

Ocean  Traffic  and  Trade 

Railway  Organization 

Railway  Accounting 

The  Law  of  Carriers  of  Goods 

Railway  Regulation 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Act 

Conference  Rulings 

Procedure  Before  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  and  Grounds  of  Proof  in  Rate 
Cases 

LaSalle  Practice  Tariffs 

Practical  Traffic  Problems 


RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND 
MANAGEMENT 


JAMES  PEABODY 

Late  Statistician 
Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  Company 


PART  2 

THE  TRAFFIC.  ACCOUNTING,  AND  MISCELLANEOUS 
DEPARTiMENTS 


La  Salle  Extension  University 
-     Chicag^o 


1926 

(3-16) 


Copyright,  1916,  1920 

All  Bights  Eeserved  in  All  Countries 

LaSalle  Extension  Univeesity 

Printed  in  the  U.S.A. 


CONTENTS 


SOURCES  OF  REVENUE 

Page 

Freight  Traffic  155 

Duties  of  Officers 160 

Fast  Freight  Lines 165 

Examples  of  Freight  Traffic  Organization 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Sante  Fe  Organization 166 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Organization 169 

Organization  of  the  Freight  Traffic  Department  of  the 
Nashville,  Chattanooga  &  St.  Louis  Railway 169 

Statistical  Control 171 

Tariff  Bureau 173 

Passenger  Traffic 

Advertising  for  Passenger  Traffic 187 

Railway  Passenger  Associations 189 

Auxiliary  Departments 

Freight  Claim  Department 190 

Industrial  Bureau   192 

Purchasing  Department  193 

Railway  Freight  Associations 193 

Central  Freight  Association 194 

Purposes  of  the  Association 194 


CONTENTS— Continued 
Accounting  Department 

Page 

Historical 200 

General  201 

Comptroller 202 

Auditors   203 

Auditor  of  Freight  Receipts 204 

Statistics  204 

Auditor  of  Revenue 206 

Auditor  of  Disbursements 206 

Outside  Supervision 208 

Train  Auditors 208 

Valuation    209 

Valuation  Engineer 209 

Valuation  Committee   210 

Working  Force  211 

Field  Work  211 

Pilots 212 

Size  of  Field  Parties 214 

Examples  of  Accounting  Organizations 

Pennsylvania  Eailroad  Accounting  Organization 215 

Union   Pacific    Organization 217 

Chicago,  Eock  Island  &  Pacific  Eailway  Organization 220 

Miscellaneous  Departments 

Real  Estate  and  Taxes 222 

Insurance  Department  223 

Testing  Department 224 

Physical  Laboratory 224 

Rubber,  Air  Brake  Hose,  and  Miscellaneous 
Laboratory 225 

Heat  Treatment  Laboratory 225 

Insulating  Tests 226 


CONTENTS— Continued 
Miscellaneous  Departments— Continued 

Page 

Lamp  Tests  226 

Laboratory  Work 226 

Metallurgical  Work,  Etc 227 

Manufacturing  Laboratory  227 

Laboratory  Car   227 

Extent  and  Variety  of  Materials  Tested 228 

Publicity  228 

Policing    229 

Car  Accounting,  Car  Distribution,  Fast  Freight 230 

Car  Accounting   230 

Car  Distribution 231 

Fast-Freight  Movement  233 

Education   235 

Belief 237 

Pensions   238 

Purchasing  Department 239 

Examples  of  Typical  Organizations 

Manistee  &  Northeastern  Railroad 242 

Operation   244 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  System 246 

Financial    247 

Legal  249 

Operating  and  Construction 249 

Traffic  and  Purchasing 250 

Accounting  250 

Miscellaneous    251 

Conclusion   253 

Test  Questions   255 


CHAPTER  XII 

TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT-SOURCES  OF  REVENUE 

Although  the  railroads  derive  a  considerable  income 
from  the  handling  of  express  and  mail  matter,  sale  and 
lease  of  property,  and  concessions  at  terminals  and  along 
the  right-of-way,  the  greater  proportion  of  their  revenue 
comes  from  freight  and  passenger  traffic. 

The  freight  and  passenger  divisions  in  this  depart- 
ment are  as  distinct  from  each  other  in  the  organization 
as  was  the  case  in  the  operating  department,  and  accord- 
ingly each  will  be  discussed  separately. 


Freight  Traffic 

The  most  important  duty  of  the  freight  traffic  depart- 
ment is  the  sale  of  transportation,  the  procuring  of  reve- 
nue-producing business,  which  makes  the  department  a 
very  important  one  to  the  company.  Of  all  the  depart- 
ments this  is  the  closest  to  the  shipping  public,  as 
practically  its  entire  intercourse  is  with  the  shippers  and 
receivers  of  the  freight. 

Another  important  function  of  the  department  is  the 
establishment  of  relations  with  connecting  lines  relative 
to  the  interchanging  of  freight  and  the  apportionment 
of  revenue  on  through  business  which  will  yield  the 
greatest  possible  return. 

It  is  possible  for  the  initial  line  to  deliver  unrouted 
interline  traffic  to  any  one  of  two  or  more  roads  at 
various  junction  points  under  a  reciprocal  arrangement. 

155 


156    KAIL  WAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

This  option  affords  a  means  by  which  the  initial  line  may- 
receive  in  return  an  equivalent  amount  of  freight  from 
the  line  so  favored. 

Where  such  conditions  obtain  and  one  line  at  a  junc- 
tion point  receives  the  greatest  amount  of  freight  from 
connections,  the  receiving  line  is  usually  designated  as 
a  preferred  line  or  connection. 

It  is  often  impossible  for  another  road  to  balance  its 
receipts  and  deliveries  at  a  given  gateway  except  by 
diverting  some  of  the  traffic  through  other  gate-ways. 

The  traffic  department  is  one  of  observation,  the 
systematic  following  of  all  possible  sources  of  traffic, 
and  constant  attention  to  detect  where  unfavorable  con- 
ditions are  developing.  The  head  of  the  department  and 
various  subordinate  officials  must  be  constantly  ad\'ised 
through  reports  of  traffic  conditions  in  all  territories 
and  districts  in  which  the  home-road  is  interested.  The 
personal  solicitation  of  division,  traveling,  and  station 
agents  is  a  part  of  the  routine  work  of  the  traffic  depart- 
ment. Such  agents  and  their  immediate  superiors  are 
very  well  qualified  to  furnish  the  required  reports  as  to 
home  and  competing  roads  on  such  subjects  as  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Car  supply — whether  sufficient  or  not;  any  business  loss  on 
account  of  ear  shortage  and  localities  and  commodities  most 
affected. 

Service — whether  or  not  deliveries  are  being  properly  made 
and  switching  service  in  placing  and  remo^'ing  cars  is  good. 

Volume  of  traffic  by  roads  in  and  out  of  certain  points  and 
whether  additional  business  has  been  secured  or  lost  through  the 
interchanging  of  business  with  connecting  roads. 

General  conditions — probable  movements  of  various  classes  of 
freight;  crop,  industrial,  and  like  conditions. 

New  industries  located  or  contemplating  new  locations — the 
local  agents  usually  report  to  the  division  freight  agent  or  the 
industrial  agent  on  new  industries  and  he  attends  to  them 
through  correspondence  or  personal  visit. 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  157 

The  amount  of  traffic  that  a  railroad  may  obtain  from 
any  given  point  or  territory  depends  on  the  following: 

Total  demand 

Competition 

Character  of  service,  as  compared  with  that 

of  other  roads 
Rates  for  transportation 

It  is  within  the  province  of  the  traffic  department  to 
increase  the  demand  for  train  transportation  by  aiding 
the  building  up  of  communities  located  along  its  line. 
It  may  advertise  that  a  community  is  in  need  of  a  par- 
ticular industry  and  that  conditions  are  favorable  for 
economical  operation  and  assured  markets.  It  may 
advise  a  community  of  markets  available  for  its  product 
and  markets  in  which  it  may  buy  needed  mateiials. 
These  latter  functions  of  the  traffic  department  are  exer- 
cised through  an  industrial  bureau,  which  may  be 
attached  to  the  traffic  department  or  maintained  as  an 
independent  bureau. 

When  competition  for  the  available  traffic  exists,  the 
personal  element  is  a  large  factor,  other  conditions  being 
equal.  When  shippers  have  a  choice  of  two  or  more 
routes  affording  substantially  the  same  class  of  service, 
there  is  no  particular  incentive  to  select  one  line  rather 
than  another  except  the  personality  or  selling  ability  of 
the  representatives  of  the  various  roads. 

The  character  of  service  rendered  is  determined  by 
the  time  in  which  deliveries  of  consigmnents  may  be 
made  and  the  uniformity  of  the  service.  Heretofore 
there  has  been  much  ill-advised  competition  among  vari- 
ous roads  in  the  matter  of  serv'ice  offered  shippers.  In 
order  to  secure  a  larger  portion  of  business,  one  line 
inaugurates  a  fast  train  or  car  service  between  certain 


158    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

points  or  territories.  The  advantage,  however,  is  only- 
temporary,  as  competing  lines  are  compelled  to  give 
similar  service  to  restore  their  parity  of  competition. 

Uniformity  of  service  as  to  the  transportation  proper- 
ties is  usually  more  essential  than  speed.  There  are,  of 
course,  many  commodities  which  require  fast  freight 
service,  but  such  service  should  be,  and  usually  is,  con- 
fined to  such  commodities. 

Uniformity  of  service  implies  well-managed  operation 
of  the  property  as  a  whole  and  particular  traffic  super- 
vision at  competitive  points. 

The  rate  for  transportation  on  standard  routes  in 
practically  all  instances  is  the  same  by  whatever  line  or 
combination  of  lines  the  traffic  may  move.  Commodities 
of  low  value  or  those  distant  from  markets  may  be 
made  to  move  by  the  application  of  rates  considerably 
below  normal.  Such  rates  are  entirely  justifiable  from 
the  traffic  man's  point  of  view,  and  their  adjustment 
at  such  levels  as  will  produce  a  flow  of  traffic  over 
the  line  and  yield  something  over  and  above  cost  of 
service,  is  one  of  the  studies  of  the  department. 

Rates  are  usually  made  by  railroads  acting  individu- 
ally through  traffic  associations. 

This  participation  in  rate  making,  either  initial  or  in 
rate  meetings,  occupies  a  very  large  part  of  the  time 
of  traffic  officials  from  the  vice  president  in  charge  of 
traffic  down  to  the  chiefs  of  tariff  bureaus.  Many  of  the 
rates  made  are  attacked  by  shippers'  associations  and 
individuals,  and  this  involves  protracted  hearings  before 
state  and  interstate  regulating  authorities  and  various 
officials  of  traffic  departments  are  required  to  attend  such 
hearings  and  very  often  have  to  prepare  voluminous 
data  bearing  on  the  rate  situation  under  investigation. 

The  work  of  the  traffic  department  may  be  summarized 
in  a  general  way  as  follows: 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  159 

(1)  Making  traffic  arrangements  with  other  railroads 
for  interchanging  business  at  connecting  points,  involv- 
ing compilation  of  statistics  showing  the  movement  of 
tonnage  and  revenue  earned  by  different  railroads  at 
important  gateways. 

(2)  Establishing  rates,  usually  in  connection  with 
other  railroads,  involving  the  attendance  of  traffic 
officials  at  joint  or  association  meetings  and  much  con- 
ference work  among  the  officials  of  the  traffic  departments 
of  various  roads. 

(3)  Discussing  rates  with  shippers  of  certain  com- 
modities and  with  shippers'  associations  and  the  defence 
of  rates  before  commissions,  both  involving  compila- 
tion and  study  of  traffic  statistics  and  attendance  by 
traffic  officials  at  such  meetings. 

(4)  Publishing  new  and  supplementing  old  tariffs 
naming  rates  and  other  details  pertaining  to  charges  and 
conditions  under  which  traffic  is  moved. 

(5)  Establishing  the  division  of  revenue  between 
lines  participating  in  interline  shipments  and  handled 
under  joint  agreement. 

( 6 )  Personal  solicitation  of  business  by  various  agents 
of  the  company.  This  is  one  of  the  most  important 
duties  of  the  department  and  is  participated  in,  directly 
and  indirectly,  by  all  divisions  of  the  department,  with 
the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  tariff  bureau. 

(7)  Creating  new  business  for  the  line  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  new  industries,  or  finding  new  markets  for 
commodities  originating  on  the  line  or  for  .supplies 
required  by  industries  and  other  interests  located  on  the 
home  line. 


160    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
Duties  of  Officers 

The  duties  of  the  officers  in  the  traffic  department  are 
not  as  well  defined  and  strictly  limited  as  they  are  in 
many  of  the  other  departments  of  railroad  work. 

In  the  operating  department  the  road  foreman  of 
engines  supervises  the  work  of  the  enginemen  and  fire- 
men on  the  locomotives;  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  the 
conductors  and  brakemen  on  the  trains.  The  care  and 
maintenance  of  the  locomotives  themselves  is  under  the 
supervision  of  the  engine-house  foreman.  The  duties 
of  each  of  these  foremen  are  carefully  defined  and  their 
jurisdiction  specifically  limited. 

No  such  fijxed  and  unvarying  division  of  responsibil- 
ity exists  in  the  traffic  department. 

The  following  article  by  F.  A.  Butterworth,  assistant 
general  freight  agent  of  the  Pere  Marquette  Railroad, 
explains  the  duties  of  the  several  officers  in  the  traffic 
department  so  far  as  they  can  be  explained: 

Anyone  attempting  to  lay  down  a  general  rule  setting  forth 
specifically  the  duties  of  the  various  officials  of  a  railroad  trafftc 
department  would  be  confronted  b}^  the  same  difficulty  as  was 
encountered  by  a  certain  naturalist  who  was  writing  a  textbook 
on  the  flora  and  fauna  of  Ireland.  His  last  chapter  was  headed 
' '  Snakes, ' '  and  the  chapter  was  a  short  one,  as  after  consulting 
the  various  authorities — both  naturalists  and  ecclesiastical — all 
he  could  find  to  say  under  the  head  in  question  was,  * '  There  are 
no  snakes  in  Ireland."  Similarly  there  are  no  hard  and  fast 
rules  as  to  the  duties  of  the  various  traffic  officials,  and  each 
railroad  is  a  law  unto  itself. 

On  a  typical  railroad  the  list  of  traffic  officials  would  be  about 
as  follows: 

Vice  president  in  charge  of  traffic 

Freight  Passenger 

Freight  traffic  manager  Passenger  traffic  manager 

General  freight  agent  General  passenger  and  ticket 
Assistant  general  freight  agent        agent 

Coal  and  coke  agent  Assistant  general  passenger  and 
Chief  of  tariff  bureau  ticket  agent 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  161 

Division  freight  agents  District  passenger  agents 

General  agents  General  baggage  agent 

Commercial  agents 
Foreign  freight  agent 

With  regard  to  freight  traffic  matters  the  division  of  work 
among  the  officials  varies  very  noticeably,  according  to  tiie  indi- 
vidual views  of  the  superior  official.  Sometimes  the  partition 
of  the  work  is  by  commodities  and  on  some  roads  the  division 
is  territorial.  Of  late  years,  as  the  supervision  of  traffic  matters 
by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  ^and  the  various  state 
railroad  commissions  has  increased,  many  railroads  have  a  traffic 
official  whose  duties  lie  wholly  in  looking  after  that  branch  of 
the  work.  Again,  the  meetings  of  the  various  traffic  associations 
and  their  committees  constitute  a  very  important  branch  of 
the  work  and  take  up  much  of  the  time  of  the  various  traffic 
officers,  and  this  work  is  divided  as  may  be  most  convenient,  so 
that  it  is  possible  only  in  a  general  way  to  state  the  duties 
of  the  various  officers. 

The  vice  president  in  charge  of  traffic,  as  indicated  by  his  title, 
has  supervision  over  all  traffic  matters,  both  passenger  and 
freight,  and  reports  to  the  president,  to  whom  alone  he  is  respon- 
sible. In  a  general  way  he  indicates  the  manner  in  which  the 
various  branches  of  traffic  work  are  to  be  divided  among  his 
subordinate  officials. 

The  freight  traffic  manager  has  actual  charge  of  all  freight 
matters,  and  subject  to  the  views  of  the  vice  president,  takes 
charge  himself  of  such  particular  branches  of  the  work  as  may 
seem  best,  and  assigns  duties  to  his  various  assistants.  He 
reports  to  the  vice  president,  or,  if  there  is  none,  to  the  general 
manager,  or  president. 

The  general  freight  agent  looks  after  such  details  as  are 
assigned  to  him  by  the  freight  traffic  manager,  to  whom  he 
reports.  Some  large  roads  have  two  or  three,  each  having  juris- 
diction over  some  particular  territor>^  or  some  particular  branch 
of  work. 

The  assistant  general  freight  agents'  duties  vary  consider- 
ably. They  may  have  charge  of  all  the  business  on  certain  divi- 
sions of  the  road,  or  they  may  deal  with  certain  assigned 
commodities  over  tlic  whole  .system.  One  may  have  charge  of  the 
various  outside  contracting  agencies  (commercial  and  general 
agents)  scattered  tliroughout  the  country.  Another  may  Iiave 
to  deal  almost  exclusively  with  the  federal  and  state  railroad 
commissions.  The  time  of  some  may  be  largely  taken  up  in 
attending  the  meetings  of  the  various  traffic  associations,  and 
their  numerous  committees.  They  report  to  the  general  freight 
agent,  or  to  the  traffic  manager,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 


1G2     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

business.  For  instance,  if  the  traffic  manag^er  makes  a  specialty 
of  looking  after  grain  shipments,  he  assigns  this  traffic  to  the 
assistant  general  freight  agent  in  charge  of  through  business — 
that  is,  of  business  originating  in  or  destined  to  points  beyond 
his  road  and  the  assistant  general  freight  agent  reports  to  him 
on  such  matters. 

The  coal  and  coke  agent,  who  has  charge  of  all  the  details  of 
the  coal  and  coke  business,  generally  reports  to  the  freight 
traffic  manager. 

The  chief  of  tariff  hureau's  duties  are  in  connection  with  the 
publication  and  distribution  of  freight  tariffs,  and  he  has  charge 
of  all  matters  relating  to  percentages.  lie  reports  to  the  freight 
traffic  manager  or  general  freight  agent  as  the  case  may  be. 
His  duties  involve  attendance  at  many  of  the  association  meet- 
ings held  for  the  purpose  of  checking  in  uniform  rates,  and 
under  the  modern  methods  of  constructing  tariffs  his  work  is 
exceedingly  exacting. 

Thus,  in  the  organization  of  the  Erie  Railroad  (Lines  West) 
the  function  of  the  tariff  bureau  is  thus  described : 

The  duties  of  the  tariff  bureau  are  to  arrange  for  the  checking 
and  authorization  of  all  rates  and  the  compiling  and  issuance 
of  all  tariffs ;  to  mail  tariffs  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the 
various  states;  and  to  issue  percentage  sheets  and  provide  for 
the  opening  of  new  routes  by  the  proper  establishment  of  per- 
centages via  the  various  direct  and  indirect  connections  of  the 
company. 

To  expedite  the  handling  of  this  work  the  office  is  divided  into 
four  departments,  namely: 

Rate  statistical  department 
Tariff  compiling  department 
Percentage  department 
Mail  department 

These  departments  are  each  under  the  supervision  of  an 
expert  in  that  particular  line,  who  in  turn  reports  to  the  chief 
of  tariff  bureau. 

The  duties  of  the  rate  statistical  department  are  to  compile 
all  data  necessary  in  the  defense  of  the  numerous  complaints 
which  come  before  the  Commission ;  to  prepare  necessary  statis- 
tics for  rate  meetings,  conferences,  etc. ;  and  to  analyze  all  special 
requests  for  commodity  rates  and  conduct  correspondence  per- 
taining to  all  matters  of  rates. 

The  tariff  compiling  department  compiles  all  tariffs  and  con- 
ducts correspondence  in  connection  there^^^th. 

The  percentage  department  handles  correspondence  and  pre- 
pares exhibits  covering  all  matters  pertaining  to  divisions,  and 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  163 

it  is  its  duty  to  effect  new  routes,  as  well  as  to  revise  percentages 
on  existing  routes. 

The  mailing  department  mails  all  tariffs  and  percentage  sheets 
and  handles  all  requests  for  either  tariffs  or  percentage  sheets, 
in  addition  to  the  numerous  details  which  are  necessarj'  in  this 
line  of  work. 

The  tariff  bureau  comes  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
general  freight  agent  and  its  power  is  mostly  recommendatory, 
as  all  matters  of  policy  in  rate  adjustments,  percentages,  etc., 
are  usually  outlined  by  the  higher  traffic  officials. 

On  an  important  north  and  south  line,  having  a  vice-president 
in  charge  of  traffic,  a  general  freight  agent,  and  an  assistant 
general  freight  agent  (handling  solicitation  of  freight),  the 
duties  of  the  chief  of  tariff  bureau  are  as  follows : 

1.  To  publish  and  distribute  all  freight  tariffs,  percentage 
sheets,  special  division  sheets,  and  their  supplements. 

2.  To  negotiate  all  percentage  divisions  and  specific  divisions 
on  commodities. 

3.  To  make  new  rates  on  specific  commodities  when  the  gen- 
eral freight  agent  is  absent,  or  has  delegated  the  duty  to  him. 

4.  To  advise  rate  quotation  clerks  in  the  office  of  the  general 
freight  agent. 

5.  To  attend  rat-e  meetings. 

6.  To  attend  Interstate  Commerce  and  state  commission 
hearings,  when  delegated  by  the  general  freight  agent. 

7.  To  instruct,  upon  request,  the  clerk  handling  formal  and 
informal  complaints  before  Interstate  Commerce  and  state  com- 
missions. 

8.  To  handle  all  Interstate  Commerce  and  state  commission 
correspondence  relating  to  the  road's  own  tariffs,  including 
Fourth  Section  matters. 

9.  To  represent  generally  the  general  freight  agent  in  his 
absence,  or  when  delegated  by  him. 

The  division  freight  agent  has  charge  of  all  freight  business 
in  a  certain  designated  territory  on  his  road.  He  deals  with  the 
shippers  and  receivers  in  his  territory,  and  with  the  local  freight 
agents  on  matters  pertaining  to  freight  traffic,  and  reports  to 
the  various  traffic  officials. 

The  general  agents  and  eommcrcial  a{)ents  are  in  most  cases 
the  freight  traffic  representatives  located  at  points  off  the  road 
in  charge  of  the  solicitation  of  freight.  They  report  usually  to 
the  freight  traffic  official  who  has  charge  of  "outside" 
solicitation. 

The  foreign  freight  agent  has  charge  of  the  general  solicita- 
tion of  all  import  and  export  traffic,  and  he  has  a  regular  solicit- 
ing force  which  is  employed  entirely  in  that  connection. 

lie  arranges  steamship  space  for  such  shipments  and  makes 


164    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

contracts  with  steamship  companies  for  the  rates  to  be  charged. 

He  arranges  for  the  clearances,  for  the  preparation  of  all 
papers  and  documents  required  by  government  officials,  and  for 
all  import  and  export  shipments,  and  issues  export  bills  of 
lading. 

He  attends  to  all  rate  legislation  relating  in  any  way  to  import 
and  export  traffic ;  that  is,  he  prepares  data  and  attends  hearings 
in  connection  therewith. 

He  keeps  himself  advised  of  business  conditions  in  foreign 
countries  and  advises  shippers  of  such  conditions  and  of  busi- 
ness opportunities  in  connection  therewith  and  as  to  the  best 
means  of  taking  advantage  of  them  and  the  proper  methods  of 
forwarding  their  shipments. 

Such  agents  are  principally  located  at  Chicago,  the  ports  of 
entry  on  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Seaboard,  and  the  Gulf  ports 
of  the  Southern  States. 

The  European  freight  agent  is  located,  usually,  in  the  capital 
of  the  European  country  from  which  his  line  desires  to  draw 
traffic,  or  in  London,  where  he  operates  through  assistants  located 
in  other  countries.  He  has  charge  of  the  solicitation  of  ship- 
ments and  the  quoting  of  ocean  and  rail  rates  from  European 
countries  to  points  in  the  United  States.  He  issues  bills  of 
lading  and  manifests  for  such  shipments.  He  arranges  for 
steamshiiD  space  and  makes  contracts  for  steamship  rates  and 
prepares  all  clearance  papers  required  for  such  shipments.  He 
advises  foreign  shippers  of  probable  markets  in  the  United 
States  for  their  products  and  as  to  proper  methods  to  be 
employed  in  soliciting  business  in  such  markets. 

The  traffic  department  of  the  Erie  Railroad  Company  was 
reorganized  about  two  years  ago,  with  the  idea  of  attaining  the 
highest  degree  of  efficiency,  and  the  present  arrangement  of  the 
offices  and  working  forces  has  been  pronounced  ideal  by  efficiency 
experts. 

Under  the  old  arrangement  every  official  had  his  suite  of 
offices,  chief  clerk,  and  working  force  ;  under  the  present  arrange- 
ment, each  official  has  a  private  office,  all  of  which  are  located 
on  one  end  of  the  floor,  and  the  clerical  forces  are  all  together 
in  one  large  room  at  the  other  end,  under  the  supervision  of 
an  executive  clerk. 

All  the  detail  work,  such  as  quoting  rates,  tracing,  handling 
claims,  compilation  of  tariffs,  etc.,  is  handled  by  the  clerical  force 
in  this  room.  The  rate  department  quotes  all  rates  and  inter- 
prets the  tariffs.  The  tracing  department  traces  and  diverts  cars 
for  all  points  reached  by  the  Erie  Railroad  and  connections. 
The  claim  department  handles  all  claims,  except  those  for  per- 
sonal injury  which  are  handled  by  a  special  representative  who 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  165 

has  an  office  on  the  same  floor.  The  compilation  of  tariffs  is 
handled  by  the  tariff  bureau  force.  This  department  also  com- 
piles division  sheets. 

All  incoming  mail  is  sent  to  the  file  department,  where  it  is 
opened  and  the  necessary  files  attached,  after  which  it  is  sent 
to  the  executive  clerk  and  his  assistant  for  examination,  and 
then  to  the  department  where  it  belongs.  All  outgoing  mail  is 
handled  by  one  department  in  order  to  avoid  sending  more  than 
one  envelope  to  the  same  party.  This  also  effects  considerable 
economy  in  postage  expense. 

One  system  of  file  numbers  is  used  on  all  correspondence,  and 
all  filing  done  in  one  department.  If  different  departments  are 
corresponding  on  the  same  subject,  it  is  all  handled  on  one  file. 

Office  hours  during  winter  months  are  8  :30  A.  j\I.  to  5  P.  M., 
with  a  half  hour  for  lunch,  and  during  the  summer  months  8 
A.  i\I.  to  5  P.  M.,  with  one  hour  for  lunch.  On  Saturdays  all 
the  year  round  the  office  closes  at  1  P.  M.  A  five-minute  recess 
is  declared  at  10  A.  ]\I.  and  at  3  P.  M.  every  day  for  the  pur- 
pose of  thoroughly  ventilating  the  offices  and  recreation. 

Fast  Freight  Lines 

In  the  past  years  an  important  feature  of  traffic 
department  organization  on  the  railroads  east  of  Chicago 
was  the  fast  freight  lines.  A  fast  freight  line  is  a 
combination  of  a  number  of  non-competitive  roads  form- 
ing continuous  routes  between  points  in  Central  Freight 
Association  Territory  and  Trunk  Line  and  New  England 
Freight  Association  Territories.  Each  of  these  fast 
freight  lines  had  its  own  separate  organization  through- 
out the  states,  soliciting  business  independently  of  the 
soliciting  forces  of  tlie  individual  railroads.  The  line 
was  in  charge  of  a  manager  who  reported  to  the  traffic 
representatives  of  the  various  meml)er  railroads  at 
monthly  or  quarterly  meetings.  Most  of  these  separate 
organizations,  however,  have  been  done  away  w^ith  now, 
although  in  many  cases  the  names  of  the  fast  freight  lines 
have  been  retained  on  account  of  their  advertising  value. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT—EXAMPLES  OT  FREIGHT 
TRAFFIC  ORGANIZATION 

A  comparison  of  the  officers  of  the  traffic  department 
with  those  of  the  operating  department  as  to  their  rela- 
tive responsibilities  is  given  in  the  following  tabulation: 


Traffic 
Vice  president  in  charge 

of  traffic 
Freight  traffic  manager 
General  freight  agent 

Assistant  general  freight 

agent 
General  agent 
Division  freight  agent 
Commercial  agent 


Operation 
Vice  president  in  charge  of 

operation 
General  manager 
General  superintendent 


Division  superintendent 


Atchison-^  Topeka  &  Sais^ta  Fe  Organization- 

Figure  18  illustrates  the  organization  of  the  freight 
traffic  department: 

This  organization  covers  approximately  9,200  miles 
of  line.  The  jurisdiction  of  the  freight  traffic  manager 
extends  over  all  of  it.  An  assistant  traffic  manager  at 
San  Francisco  reports  both  to  the  freight  traffic  manager 
and  to  the  passenger  traffic  manager.  There  are  two 
assistant  freight  traffic  managers,  one  in  Chicago  and 
one  in  San  Francisco,  and  two  general  freight  agents, 
one  in  Topeka,  Kan.,  and  one  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  all 

166 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT 


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1G8    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

reporting  direct  to  the  freight  traffic  manager.  One 
assistant  freight  traffic  manager  and  one  general  freight 
agent  are  assigned  to  lines  east  of  Albuquerque  and  the 
same  to  lines  west  thereof — the  Coast  Lines.  An  indus- 
trial commissioner,  with  an  assistant  industrial  agent, 
reports  to  the  freight  traffic  manager  at  Chicago,  and  an 
assistant  industrial  commissioner,  with  two  assistant 
industrial  agents,  reports  to  the  assistant  freight  traffic 
manager  at  San  Francisco.  That  is,  there  are  two  sets 
of  staff  officers  supervising  freight  traffic — one  on  lines 
east  and  one  on  lines  west  of  Albuquerque — thus  giving 
each  of  the  two  systems  an  autonomous  organization 
coordinated  through  the?  head  of  the  department. 

The  system  does  a  very  large  business  in  the  carrying 
of  fruits  and  vegetables  groAvn  in  California  and  the 
Southwest  which  are  marketed  in  the  Central  and 
Eastern  States.  There  is  a  manager  of  the  Santa  Fe 
Refrigerating  Despatch  Co.,  reporting  direct  to  the 
freight  traffic  manager,  who  supervises  this  fast  freight 
traffic.  Connected  with  this  refrigerator  line  are  general 
and  traveling  agents — all  Coast  Line  officials. 

The  foreign  freight  agent,  located  in  Chicago,  reports 
to  the  freight  traffic  manager. 

Eeporting  to  the  two  general  freight  agents  are  eleven 
assistant  general  freight  agents,  viz.: 

Five  at  Chicago, 
Two  at  Tojjeka,  Kan., 
Tavo  at  San  Francisco, 
One  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
One  at  Prescott,  Ariz.,  in  charge  of  the 
Santa  Fe,  Prescott  &  Phoenix  Eailway. 

There  are  eleven  division  freight  agents,  eleven 
general  agents,  six  commercial  agents,  and  twenty-four 
traveling    freight    agents    reporting    to    the    a-ssistant 


TRiiFFIC  DEPARTMENT  169 

general  freight  agents.     It  will  be  observed  that  this 
division  of  supervision  is  on  a  territorial  basis. 

As  to  a  large  part  of  its  length  this  system  traverses 
the  cattle  country  of  the  West  and  the  Southwest,  which 
accounts  for  the  large  organization  supervising  live 
stock  trafiic.  The  general  live  stock  agent  with  an 
assistant  is  located  at  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  and  he  has  in 
addition  two  other  assistants.  There  are  four  live  stock 
agents  and  two  traveling  agents  reporting  to  these. 

The  chief  of  the  tariff  bureau  reports  both  to  the 
freight  traffic  manager  and  to  the  assistant  general 
freight  agents. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Organization 

The  organization  of  the  Freight  Traffic  Department  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  is  shown  in  Fig.  19.  The 
authority  is  here  divided  in  the  first  place  according  to 
regions  and  in  the  second  place  according  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  business. 

Under  each  regional  traffic  manager  is  a  general  coal 
freight  agent  responsible  for  the  solicitation  and  devel- 
opment of  the  coal  traffic,  as  well  as  for  the  establish- 
ment of  such  rates  as  will  move  this  business  profitably. 
Reporting  also  to  the  I'egional  traffic  manager,  is  a 
freight  claim  agent  whose  duties  are  evident  from  his 
title.  The  freight  traffic  manager  in  each  district  is 
charged  with  all  the  traffic  duties  of  his  region  aside 
from  those  given  to  the  general  coal  freight  agent.  The 
work  is  divided  among  the  various  assistants  and  sub- 
ordinate officials  shoAVTi  on  the  chart. 

Organization  of  the  Freight  Traffic  Department  of 
THE  Nashville,  Chattanooga  &  St,  Louis  Railway 

The  organization  of  the  freight  traffic  department  of 
this  line  (1,230  miles)  illustrates  wliat  is  usually  found 
on  the  smaller  systems.     (See  Figure  20.) 


170    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


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TRAFFIC  DEPART^IE^^T 


171 


Vice-President  and 
Traffic  Manager 


General  Freight  Agent 


Asst.  General 
Freight  Agents 

(3) 


Division  Freight 
Agent 

(1) 


Claim 
Agent 


General  Agent 
Louisville 


Traveling 

Freight  Agents 

17 


Commercial 

Agents 

8 


Western  Agent 
St. Louis 


City  Freight    Aosnt 
Paducah  Ky. 

Assistant 

Fig.  20. — Organization  of  tlie  Froiglit  Traffic  Department  of  the  Nashville, 
Chattanooga  &  St.  Louis  Railway 


Five  of  the  commercial  agents  are  in  cities  located  on 
the  system.  There  is  one  each  in  Chicago,  Kansas  City, 
and  Jacksonville,  Fla. 


Statistical  Control 

The  compilation  of  statistics  made  from  the  station 
agent's  monthly  abstract  of  way-bills  for  ''freight 
received"  and  "freight  forwardetl"  shows  the  tonnage 
and  revenue  of  the  traffic  received  and  forwarded  from 
each  station  on  the  line.  A  monthly  statement  for  each 
operating  division  is  prepared  and  comixirison  with  the 
previous  month  and  the  same  month  of  the  preceding 
year  by  stations  and  divisions  shows  at  once  any  increase 
or  decrease  in  business  and  indicates  where  it  has 
occurred.  On  some  roads,  notiibly  the  Atchison,  T4::peka 
&  Santa  Fe,  a  statement  is  prepared  showing  the  ton- 
nage  and   revenue   by   commodities   received   and   for- 


172    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

warded  at  each  station.  Comparisons  on  this  basis 
with  previous  performance  indicate  whether  or  not 
the  traffic  from  certain  ''lines  of  business"  is  increasing 
or  decreasing.  These  statements  serve  to  verify  or 
disprove  to  a  large  extent  the  reports  of  traveling 
freight,  division,  and  station  agents,  heretofore  referred 
to,  and  furnish  a  very  good  general  check  on  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  soliciting  force. 

They  show  also  the  interchange  of  business  with 
foreign  lines  at  junction  and  connecting  points  and 
furnish  the  data  for  determining  the  condition  of  inter- 
line traffic  and  whether  the  home  line  is  getting  its  fair 
proportion  of  business  at  such  interchange  points. 

There  are  large  movements  of  traffic  between  terri- 
tories which  pass  through  certain  gateways  and  it  is 
necessary  to  know  not  only  the  traffic  of  the  home  road 
through  them  but  its  relation  to  the  traffic  of  other  lines 
working  through  the  same  gateways.  Certain  railroad 
associations  gather  the  data  necessary  to  show  the  con- 
dition of  such  traffic,  the  Chicago  and  Ohio  Eiver  Com- 
mittee being  one  of  them. 

This  committee  publishes  certain  tariffs  for  its  mem- 
ber railroads  naming  rates  between  the  Chicago  District 
and  contiguous  territory  and  certain  gateways  which 
are  known  as  the  Ohio  Eiver  Crossings ;  viz.,  Cairo,  111., 
Brookport,  111.,  Evansville,  Ind.,  New  Albany,  Ind.,  Jef- 
fersonville,  Ind.,  Louisville,  Ky.,  and  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
It  receives  from  all  lines  working  through  these  gate- 
ways, tissue  copies  of  way-bills  covering  shipments 
received  or  forwarded  through  them.  An  analytical 
statement  is  prepared  under  the  supervision  of  the 
chairman  of  the  committee  showing,  among  other  things, 
the  tonnage  and  revenue  received  by  each  line  on  busi- 
ness to  and  from  these  gateways. 

Other  associations  perform  similar  service  for  member 
railroads  at  other  gateways..    The  information  indicates 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  173 

to  the  traffic  officials  of  all  roads  the  condition  of  their 
business  in  relation  to  the  total  and  to  any  competitor  in 
which  they  are  particularly  interested.  It  also  indicates 
to  a  traffic  manager  whether  or  not  certain  portions  of 
his  traffic,  whose  routing  he  can  control,  should  continue 
to  be  routed  through  certain  gateways  or  be  diverted  to 
others  where  he  may  increase  his  interchange  business 
by  making  such  diversion. 

Statistical  control  is  exercised  in  the  administration 
of  the  traffic  department  to  as  large  an  extent  as  in 
the  operating  department,  which  has  been  heretofore 
described. 

Takiff  Bureau 

The  compilation  and  publication  of  tariffs  is  one  of  the 
most  important  duties  of  the  traffic  department.  As  the 
work  involved  is  of  an  entirely  different  nature  from 
the  solicitation  and  other  branches  of  traffic  work  here- 
tofore described,  this  section  is  included  to  define  the 
general  work  of  this  bureau. 

On  smaller  roads  and  in  some  instances  on  the  larger 
ones,  there  is  no  such  officer  as  the  chief  of  tariff  bureau 
nor  a  separate  bureau  with  a  distinguishing  name,  the 
work  being  performed  under  the  supei'\'ision  of  the 
general  freight  agent  or  of  an  assistant  general  freight 
agent  in  connection  with  other  general  office  work.  The 
work  to  be  done  is  the  same,  however,  whatever  the 
title  of  the  officer  in  charge  or  the  designation  of  the 
division  responsible  for  its  performance. 

There  are  two  distinct  divisions  of  the  work  in  eveiy 
tariff  bureau ;  viz.,  the  compilation  and  publishing  of  the 
tariffs  naming  the  rates,  rules,  and  regulations  governing 
the  transportation  of  freight,  and  the  preparation  of 
division  sheets  showing  the  division  of  the  revenue  accru- 
ing to  each  railroad  participating  in  the  movement  of 


174    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

all  shipments  between  points  on  the  home  and  those  on 
foreign  lines. 

In  many  bureaus  there  is  a  third  and  very  important 
division  known  as  the  connecting  line  department.  This 
subdivision  has  in  charge  the  work  of  examining  the 
tariffs  and  special  division  sheets  of  connections  of  the 
home  line  in  which  the  home  line  participates.  The 
examination  is  for  the  purpose  of  determining  if  the 
home  line  has  been  accorded  full  representation  to  all 
points  to  which  it  can  handle  the  traffic  covered  by  the 
schedule  and  if  the  proper  junction  points  have  been  used. 
No  small  part  of  the  work  of  this  division  is  to  see  that 
connections  furnish  proper  special  division  sheets  where 
the  regular  or  agreed  percentages  do  not  apply. 

The  basis  for  the  rates  on  interline  traffic  actually 
published  is  determined  by  joint  action  of  all  interested 
lines  and  the  divisions  of  revenue  are  generally  on  a 
percentage  basis  for  merchandise  traffic.  On  such  low- 
grade  commodities  as  lumber,  salt,  drain  tile,  stone,  and 
coal,  there  are  often  arbitrary  divisions;  that  is,  the 
originating  or  delivering  roads  or  both  demand  a  certain 
arbitrary  proportion  per  100  pounds,  or  per  ton,  to  or 
from  junction  points.  These  percentages  or  arbitrary 
divisions  are  compiled  and  published  in  the  division 
sheets  and  are  used  in  the  accounting  department 
(auditor's  office)  as  the  basis  of  settlement  between  all 
roads  on  interline  traffic. 

The  tariffs  themselves,  in  addition  to  naming  the 
rates  between  all  points  in  the  territory  they  cover,  must 
show  all  participating  railroads  and  their  concurrences 
in  such  tariffs,  and  must  state  definitely  all  rules  regard- 
ing minimum  weights  and  such  matters  and  all  condi- 
tions under  which  freight  is  received  for  transportation. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  compilation  of 
tariffs  and  division  sheets  and  the  issuing  of  supple- 
ments thereto,  when  rates  or  conditions  are  changed, 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  175 

involves  very  careful  clerical  work  and  much  checking 
to  insure  their  accuracy. 

In  connection  with  this  work  there  must  be  maintained 
a  file  not  only  of  all  tariffs  and  division  sheets  of  the 
home  line  but  of  other  lines  in  whose  tariffs  the  home 
line  concurs,  also  a  file  of  similar  publications  of  all 
other  lines  in  the  territory  whose  rates  may  in  any  way 
affect  the  home  line.  The  maintaining  of  these  files  is 
one  of  the  duties  of  the  tariff  bureau. 

Ordinarily  the  only  sharp  division  of  the  work  of 
the  bureau  is  between  work  on  tariffs  and  that  on 
division  sheets.  Some  roads,  however,  on  account  of 
their  traffic  location,  divide  the  work  on  a  territorial  or 
commodity  basis.  The  Illinois  Central  has  an  organiza- 
tion divided  on  a  territorial  basis.  Its  line  lies  in 
Western  Trunk  Line,  Central  Freight,  and  Southern 
Territories.  The  tariff  bureau  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  system  has  (1)  what  is  called  the  Central  Freight 
Association  and  Eastern  Points  division,  whose  work  is 
confined  to  rates  and  divisions  on  traffic  between  Illinois 
points  and  points  named  in  the  title;  (2)  a  "Western 
division,  whose  work  is  confined  to  traffic  between  Illi- 
nois points  and  points  on  westera  roads — west  of  the 
Mississippi  River;  (3)  a  Southern  division,  whose  work 
is  confined  to  traflSc  between  Illinois  and  western  points 
on  the  one  hand  and  southern  territories  on  the  other. 

On  the  Chicago  and  Eastern  Illinois  there  is  a  division 
of  the  bureau  whose  work  is  confined  to  lumber  rates 
and  divisions  only.  Each  of  these  divisions  is  in  charge 
of  a  division  clerk  with  several  compilers  and  clerks 
under  him,  the  number  of  course  depending  on  the  size 
and  number  of  the  tariffs  handled. 

The  chief  of  tariff  bureau's  duties  vary  widely  on  the 
several  roads.  In  all  cases  he  has  general  supervision 
of  the  compiling  and  publishing  of  tariffs  and  division 
sheets. 


176     liAlLWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

On  most  roads  he  attends  the  association  meetings 
and  other  conferences  when  joint  rates  are  under  dis- 
cussion. On  some  roads,  notably  the  western  constituent 
roads  of  the  New  York  Central  System,  he  has  the  author- 
ity to  state  at  such  conferences  the  rates  and  divisions  his 
road  will  accept,  without  confirmation  of  the  general 
freight  agent  or  traffic  manager;  on  the  other  roads  he 
acts  only  on  specific  instruction  from  his  superior  as  to 
each  point  involved;  in  some  instances  he  attends  meet- 
ings merely  for  the  benefit  of  the  discussion  in  relation 
to  rates,  the  actual  naming  of  the  rates  and  divisions 
of  his  road  being  delegated  to  other  traffic  officials. 

In  some  tariff  bureaus  there  is  a  quotation  clerk  whose 
duty  it  is  to  quote  rates  on  request  from  employees  in 
the  accounting,  claim,  and  other  departments  of  the 
home  road,  and  from  station  agents,  shippers,  and  others 
interested  in  any  freight  rates  published  by  his  road. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

TOAFFIC  DEPARTMENT— PASSENGER  TRAFFIC 

This  department  has  charge  ol'  all  details  relating  to 
passengers,  including  baggage,  mail,  express,  and  milk 
service  on  passenger  trains  in  some  instances.  It  is 
charged  with  obtaining  a  large  part  of  competitive  busi- 
ness and  developing  as  much  wow  business  as  is  prac- 
ticable. 

The  organization's  functions,  duties,  and  responsibili- 
ties are  not  as  clearly  defined  as  those  of  other  depart- 
ments. It  is  the  selling  organization  endeavoring  to  get 
the  business  and  works  much  as  other  business  selling 
organizations  do. 

It  has  such  definite  duties  as  printing  tickets,  dis- 
tributing them,  and  instructing  agents  in  regard  to 
their  preparation,  sale,  and  use;  fixing  rates  within 
limits  allowed  by  the  traffic  division  or  rate-regidating 
lodics;  and  arranging  the  division  of  revenue  with  other 
carriers  which  participate  in  business  extending  beyond 
its  own  lines;  handling  baggage  and  collecting  excess 
charges ;  and  a<lvertising  for  ])atronago  of  the  passenger 
service. 

On  many  roads  the  immigration  bureau  is  included  in 
this  department,  as  well  as  commissaries  for  the  opera- 
tion of  dining-car  service  and  depot  lunch  rooms  and 
general  supeiwision  of  eating  houses  controlled  l)y  the 
company,  where  such  is  refjuired. 

In  arrangement  of  passenger  train  sc'rvice  and  sched- 
ules, the  head  of  the  depailmcTit  is  vested   witli  a  con- 

177 


178     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

siderable  measure  of  authority.  With  the  operation  of 
trains,  however,  he  has  nothing  to  do. 

As  the  revenue  from  passenger  train  service  is,  as  an 
average  for  the  whole  country,  about  twenty-eight  per 
cent  of  the  total  earnings  from  operation,  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  department  is  large.  The  New  York,  New 
Haven  &  Hartford  Eailroad  obtains  about  one-half 
of  its  revenue  from  passenger  service,  and  the  average 
for  the  New  England  States  as  a  whole  is  about  forty- 
five  per  cent.  Passenger  traffic  is  of  less  relative 
importance  on  western  roads,  but  earning  as  it  does  so 
large  a  percentage  of  the  revenues  on  all  roads,  it  is 
no  slight  element  in  the  situation. 

Its  problems  vary,  however,  with  density  and  charac- 
ter of  population.  In  the  older  portions  of  the  country 
the  duty  of  this  department  consists  largely  in  keeping 
a  long-established  service  running  smoothly  and  reduc- 
ing cost  to  the  minimum  consistent  with  good  service.  In 
a  less  thickly  settled  community  with  small  towns  and  an 
agricultural  population  largely  in  excess  of  urban  popu- 
lation, the  problem  is  different  and  the  margin  of  profit 
in  the  business  small.  Often  passenger  trains  must  be 
run  with  a  view  to  future  earnings  rather  than  to  pres- 
ent profits.  Sometimes  trains  are  run  for  the  benefit 
of  the  other  departments,  such  as  the  freight,  m  order 
to  gain  the  good  will  of  shippers  in  competitive  territory. 
That  is,  the  passenger  department  must  in  some  instances 
be  used  to  develop  or  hold  the  business  and  benefit  the 
road  as  a  whole  rather  than  limit  its  service  to  legitimate 
demand  based  on  direct  returns  from  such  service  itself. 

In  the  case  of  lines  extended  into  territory  but  little 
developed,  an  actual  loss  must  be  incurred  in  making 
rates  so  low  that  prospective  settlers  may  be  brought  out 
to  look  at  the  * '  new  country, ' '  with  a  view  to  developing 
new  business  nonexistent  at  the  time.    Much  of  this  has 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  179 

been  nnd  is  still  being-  done  by  the  roads  operating 
west  of  the  Missouri  River  and  in  the  Southwest. 

The  problem  of  excursion  rates  is  always  present 
and  requires  solution.  Rates  which  are  well  ad\dsed 
in  some  circumstances  will  not  be  in  others  and  care 
must  be  exercised  in  making  such  rates  that  they 
do  not  seriously  affect  other  situations  in  which  reduc- 
tions are  not  justified.  The  making  of  excursion  rates 
for  merchants'  fairs,  Mardi  Gras,  state  fairs,  and  such 
occasions,  is  justified  and  profitable,  but  such  reductions 
have  often  been  the  basis  for  ill-advised  rates  having  no 
justification  whatever. 

Another  class  of  business  of  much  the  same  nature 
is  the  reduction  for  conventions  of  various  kinds. 
Often  reduced  rates  are  asked  for  by  various  associa- 
tions, and  in  many  instances  the  amount  of  business 
will  justify  the  reduction  and  in  others  it  will  not. 
It  requires  judgment  and  experience  to  decide  in  which 
class  the  application  belongs.  In  all  such  cases,  how- 
ever, the  net  results  to  tha  roads  participating  in  the 
rates  should  be  profitable. 

In  addition  to  this  supervision  of  special  rates  there 
is,  of  course,  the  matter  of  division  of  rates  with 
other  lines  in  the  regular  course  of  business  and  in 
some  instances  (as  between  Chicago  and  New  York) 
arranging  for  such  differentials  as  the  necessities  of 
the  road  and  its  service  require.* 

The  duties  of  the  passenger  traffie  maywrjcr  may  be 
given  as  a  summary  of  much  of  what  has  just  been 
said.  He  is  the  head  of  the  department  and  responsible 
for  passenger  train  service  and  for  all  traffic  that  is 
handled  by  it. 


'  Much  of  the  data  contained  in  the  foregoing  section  ia  taken  from  a 
paper  written  by  Mr.  Percy  S.  Eustis,  passenger  traflic  manager  of  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Railroad,  for  Raihray  Organization  and 
Working,  edited  by  E.  R.  Dewsnup. 


180     RAILWAY  UKGAMZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Such  train  service  mu.st  be  adjusted  to  the  needs  of 
the  traveling  public  and  be  conducted  for  the  benefit 
of  the  railroad  as  a  whole,  often  necessitating  cooper- 
ation Avitli  the  freight  department  in  many  matters. 

Passenger  train  schedules  are  made  by  the  passenger 
traffic  manager  in  cooperation  with  the  operating  depart- 
ment, although  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  actual  oper- 
ating of  passenger  trains.  In  making  the  schedules,  he 
must  consult  with  the  operating  department  as  to  run- 
ning  time,   equipment,   and   facilities. 

Making  arrangements  with  connecting  lines  for  inter- 
change of  business  and  establishing  through  routes  of 
travel  is  one  of  his  chief  duties  and  involves  as  well  the 
division  of  the  rates. 

The  decision  as  to  the  reduction  of  rates  below  the 
regular  tariff  schedule  is  his,  usually  in  conference  with 
similar  officials  of  other  lines  in  the  same  territory, 
through  associations  similar  to  the  freight  traffic  organi- 
zations. 

The  dividing  of  his  advertising  appropriation  among 
the  various  mediums  available,  such  as  newspapers, 
booklets,  folders,  bill  boards,  and  maps,  is  a  matter  of 
first  importance,  in  which  he  w^ill  be  assisted  by  the 
head  of  his  advertising  division. 

Supervision  of  the  soliciting  agents  of  the  road  must 
be  exercised  by  him  through  representatives  whom  he 
appoints  for  the  purpose  and  generally  through  period- 
ical written  reports  as  to  general  and  special  condi- 
tions affecting  the  passenger  traffic  both  along  his  line 
and  in  territories  situated  at  some  distance  from  it  in 
whose  traffic  he  participates. 

Often  his  road  maintains  an  iimnigration  bureau 
under  his  jurisdiction  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the 
settlement  of  the  country  traversed  by  his  line. 

Ordinarily  he  supervises  the  handling  of  baggage 
through  a  baggage  department  in  direct  charge   of  a 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  181 

baggage  master,  who  prescribes  rules  for  handling 
baggage,  collecting  for  excess  baggage,  and  adjusting 
claims  for  loss  or  damage  to  it,  all  with  the  approval  of 
the  head  of  the  department. 

On  very  large  roads  the  conunissary-  department  may 
be  separate,  but  usually  general  supervision  of  it  is 
vested  in  the  passenger  traffic  manager,  for  while  it 
is  seldom  a  source  of  profit  its  conduct  affects  pas- 
senger traffic  directly,  beneficially  if  properly  conducted, 
otherwise  if  not. 

Mail  and  express  traffic  are  usually  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  passenger  department,  as  the  greater 
part  of  the  business  is  handled  by  passenger  trains. 
It  is  sometimes  in  charge  of  an  officer  reporting  directly 
to  the  president  or  some  one  of  the  vice  presidents. 
The  compensation  for  carrying  mail  is  fixed  by  law,  and 
the  express  business  is  usually  done  under  a  contract 
for  so  much  space  in  express  car  or  a  certain  percentage 
of  gross  express  revenue.  Even  so  the  comi)ensation 
and  the  percentages  require  adjustment  at  times,  in 
which  the  passenger  traffic  manager  will  generally  par- 
ticipate. 

The'  gemeral  passenger  agent  is  the  representative  of 
the  passenger  traffic  manager  in  certain  designated  ter- 
ritory. He  reports  to  the  traffic  manager  and  has  gen- 
eral supervision  of  the  employees  and  work  of  the 
passenger  department  in  his  territory.  On  the  smaller 
systems  having  no  passenger  traffic  manager,  he  reports 
to  the  general  manager  or  the  prresident  direct.  On 
still  smaller  roads  the  general  freight  and  passenger 
agent  has  charge  of  both  freight  and  passenger  traffic. 

Assistant  general  passenger  agents  usually  have  juris- 
diction over  some  particular  class  of  traffic,  as  organize<l 
party  traffic. 

District  passenger  agents  work  within  a  certain 
defined  territory,  principally  with  the  station  agents  of 


182    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  home  line.  They  are  the  ''outside"  representatives 
of  the  general  passenger  agent  among  the  home  line 
agents  and  aid  them  in  handling  passenger  traffic, 
including  instruction  in  the  preparation  and  sale  of 
tickets,  keeping  of  records  and  reports,  and  obtaining 
prospective  business.  They  confer  with  local  interests 
in  the  adjustment  of  time  schedules  to  local  needs  and 
other  matters  of  local  interest.  They  have  immediate 
supervision  in  some  instances  of  the  traveling  passenger 
agents  engaged  along  the  line  of  the  home  company. 

Traveling  passenger  agents  work  with  the  agents  of 
foreign  lines — except  those  reporting  to  the  division 
freight  agent  of  the  home  lines.  The  various  pas- 
senger officials  receive  many  inquiries  as  the  result  of 
advertising,  and  the  traveling  agents  attend  to  these 
personally  when  circumstances  require.  They,  like  the 
soliciting  agents  of  the  freight  traffic  department,  have 
many  "leads"  which  they  follow  in  much  the  same 
Avay  that  salesmen  in  mercantile  lines  do.  Some  of  these 
work  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  general  pas- 
senger agent,  others  under  the  general  or  special  agents 
of  the  home  company  located  in  territory  distant  from 
the  home  line.  The  duties  of  all  of  them  are  the  same, 
however,  as  they  are  the  active  selling  force  of  the 
passenger  department. 

General  agents  usually  have  charge  of  both  freight 
and  passenger  traffic  in  certain  defined  territory,  usually 
not  situated  on  the  line  of  the  home  road.  They  canvass 
their  territory  through  traveling  freight  and  pas- 
senger agents,  regularly  calling  on  the  agents  of  for- 
eign lines  and  attending  to  such  inquiries  and  following 
such  leads  as  they  receive. 

Figure  21  shows  the  organization  of  the  passenger 
department  of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy  Rail- 
road, a  system  comprising  9,339  miles  of  line : 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT 


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184    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

There  is  a  vice  president  in  charge  of  traffic  to  whom 
the  freight  traffic  manager  and  the  passenger  traffic 
manager  report.  Reporting  to  the  passenger  traffic 
manager  are  six  officials,  as  shown  on  the  chart.  While 
the  advertising  manager  spends  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  money  in  the  aggregate  during  the  year,  his 
organization  is  a  small  one. 

The  superintendent  of  commissary  has  charge  of  the 
obtaining  (through  the  purchasing  department)  of  all 
dining-car  supplies  and  the  operation  of  the  dining 
cars;  that  is,  the  preparation  of  menus  and  serving  of 
meals  on  such  cars.  He  has  a  general  assistant  at  Clii- 
cago  and  another  at  Kansas  City,  as  the  mileage  of  the 
system  is  so  great  that  more  than  one  assistant  is 
required  to  give  the  close  supervision  this  class  of  service 
demands.  In  addition  there  are  four  inspectors  on 
the  road  constantly  to  insure  good  ser\'ice  by  frequent 
detailed  inspection. 

The  general  baggage  agent  has  supervision  of  all 
baggage,  mail,  express,  and  milk  carried  on  passenger 
trains.  He  has  an  assistant  stationed  at  Lincoln,  Neb. 
The  baggage  agent  arranges  for  the  space  required  by 
the  government  for  carrying  mail,  receives  and  answers 
complaints,  and  attends  to  all  fines  imposed  by  the 
Post  Office  Department  on  account  of  delayed  mail, 
and  such  matters.  He  makes  regulations  in  regard  to 
handling  baggage  by  train  baggagemen  and  station 
agents  and  the  collection  of  charges  for  excess  baggage. 
His  office  force  consists  of  a  chief  clerk,  stenographer 
and  clerks,  tracing  clerk,  and  mail  statistician.  All 
claims  for  loss  of  or  damage  to  personal  baggage  carried 
in  baggage  cars  are  handled  by  him. 

There  are  three  general  passenger  agents  reporting 
to  the  passenger  traffic  manager.  One  assistant  general 
passenger  agent  located  in  Chicago  has  entire  charge 
of    the    soliciting   and   handling    of    ''organized    party 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  185 

iraffic;"  that  is,  of  large  bodies  of  members  of  associa- 
tions attending  conventions  and  meetings.  In  this  con^ 
nection  he  is  advised  of  convention  dates,  names  of 
officials  of  organizations,  and  data  essential  to  the  con- 
duct of  such  business,  and  arranges  for  the  equipment 
required  in  moving  this  class  of  traffic.  He  reports 
to  the  general  passenger  agent  at  Chicago. 

The  general  passenger  agent  at  Chicago  is  in  effect 
an  assistant  passenger  traffic  manager,  acting  for  the 
head  of  the  department  during  his  absence.  Reporting 
direct  to  him  are  the  following  officers,  in  addition  to 
the  assistant  general  passenger  agent  just  mentioned: 

Division  passenger  agent  located  at  Burlington.  la. 

Northwestern  passenger  agent  located  at  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

New  England  passenger  agent  located  at  Boston,  Mass. 

Three  general  agents. 

Five  .raveling  passenger  agents. 

Outside  agencies,  located  at  points  not  on  the  home  line. 

Two  of  the  general  agents  have  three  traveling  pas- 
senger agents  under  their  supervision. 

The  general  passenger  agent  at  St.  Louis  has  report- 
ing to  him  the  following  officers : 

Division  passenger  agent  located  at  St.  Joseph,  Mo. 

Southwestern  passenger  agent  located  at  Kansas  City.  Mo., 
who  has  two  traveling  passenger  agents  and  one  city  passenger 
agent  under  his  supervision. 

Two  city  passenger  agents,  one  in  St.  Louis  and  one  in  Cin- 
cinnati. 

Four  traveling  passenger  agents. 

Outside  agencies. 

The  general  passenger  agent  at  Omaha,  Neb.,  has  the 
following  officers  reporting  to  him: 

One  general   agent,   located   at  Denver,   Colo.,   who   has  one 
traveling  passenger  agent  under  his  supervision. 
Three  city  agents. 
Two  traveling  passenger  agents,  one  of  whom  acts  a<5  division 


186     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

passenger  agent  among  the  station  agents  of  the  home  line  for 
about  one-half  his  time  and  as  a  traveling  passenger  agent  on 
foreign  lines  for  the  other  half. 

An  immigration  agent,  who  has  two  assistants  reporting  to 
him.  This  agent  in  connection  with  the  advertising  manager  in 
Chicago  plans  advertisements  in  rural  journals  calling  attention 
to  the  advantages  of  irrigated  and  other  lands  available  for  set- 
tlement. Pie  visits  communities  in  answer  to  replies  received 
from  these  advertisements  and  canvasses  districts  and  rural  com- 
munities for  prospective  settlers  on  new  lands  located  along  the 
lines  of  the  home  road.  He  arranges  home-seekers'  excursions, 
usually  two  a  month,  during  the  seasons  when  farmers  have 
completed  their  work,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  those  inter- 
ested to  visit  the  "new  country"  cheaply.  He  or  his  assistant 
personally  conducts  such  excursions  and  makes  arrangements 
for  trips  for  such  home-seekers  through  the  country  for  the 
purpose  of  demonstrating  its  advantages. 

An  exhibit  of  the  agricultural  products  of  the  lands 
along  the  home  line  is  maintained  in  Chicago  for  the 
benefit  of  city  v>"orkers  who  may  be  attracted  to  set- 
tlement of  new  cheap  lands. 

The  Chicago  office  of  the  passenger  traffic  department 
has  a  strikingly  compact  organization  with  some  rather 
unusual  features.  All  the  general  officers  of  the  depart- 
ment and  their  employees  are,  in  effect,  in  one  very 
large  room,  which  facilitates  intercommunication  among 
the  several  divisions  of  the  department  and  avoids  much 
of  the  *4ost  motion"  which  is  unavoidable  in  less  favor- 
able situations.  While  each  division  maintains  its  own 
files  and  preserves  its  autonomy  to  a  large  extent,  this 
arrangement  is  peculiarly  favorable  to  the  coordination 
of  the  work  of  all  divisions. 

One  chief  clerk  acts  for  all  the  three  chief  passenger 
officials;  viz.,  passenger  traffic  manager,  general  pas- 
senger agent,  and  assistant  general  passenger  agent. 
One  messenger  and  one  stenographer  force  are  organ- 
ized as  one  unit  serving  the  three  main  di^^sions  of 
the  office.  Usually  each  of  these  three  officials  has  his 
own  chief  clerk  and  separate  office  organization. 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  187 

Advertising  for  Passenger  Traffic 

While  the  advertising  division  of  the  passenger 
department  is  not  a  large  one  numerically,  its  work 
is  most  important  in  the  solicitation  of  competitive  busi- 
ness, and  a  short  description  of  its  work  is  added  here. 

In  the  last  fifteen  years  radical  changes  have  come 
about  in  railroad  advertising.  There  have  been  two 
principal  causes :  first,  the  abolition  of  the  practice  of 
paying  commissions  to  agents  of  foreign  lines  for  busi- 
ness routed  over  the  home  line;  second,  the  action  of 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  in  prohibiting  the 
practice  of  paying  for  newspaper  advertising  with 
transportation. 

There  is  no  incentive  for  the  selling  agent  now,  as 
there  was  formerly,  to  route  the  business  over  any 
particular  line.  For  that  reason  he  is  appealed  to 
through  advertising  and  the  personal  solicitation  of  the 
traveling  passenger  agent.  The  former  practice  of 
paying  for  newspaper  advertising  with  transportation 
was  very  extensive,  especially  as  to  the  country  papers, 
all  of  Avhich  carried  time-tables  and  reading  notices.  As 
a  general  proposition  this  was  an  arrangement  of  con- 
siderable benefit  to  the  railroads,  but  much  of  it  was 
looked  after  only  indifferently  and  it  was  a  very  conunon 
occurrence  to  see  display  advertisements  in  the  country 
papers  advertising  some  special  event  for  two  or  three 
weeks  after  that  particular  event  had  become  history. 
In  the  metropolitan  papers  display  advertisements  were 
paid  for  in  cash  and  reading  notices  in  transportation 
usually. 

Railroad  advertising  is  prepared  for  two  classes  of 
people:  the  traveling  public  and  railroad  agents,  both 
of  the  home  and  foreign  line.  In  general  the  same 
mediums  used  by  other  selling  organizations  are 
employed  by  the  railroads. 


188     RAILWAY  ORGANJZATIOX  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  agents  arc  appealed  to  mostly  through  the  mail, 
by  means  of  mailing  cards  or  leaflets.  These  contain 
notices  of  reduced  rates  on  account  of  special  events 
or  particular  locations,  as  summer  resorts,  Panama 
Exposition,  Yellowstone  Park,  Grand  Canyon,  opening 
of  some  particular  piece  of  government  land  for  the 
public  entry,  and  inauguration  of  the  president.  In 
such  advertising  the  rate  is  the  prominent  feature  rather 
'  than  the  railroad  making  it.  Time-tables  of  the  home 
road  also  are  sent  regularly  to  the  agent  list.  Framed 
pictures  or  maps  carrying  the  advertisement  of  the 
home  roads  are  sent  to  agents  at  the  more  important 
cities. 

All  advertising  plans  must  provide  a  system  of  *'foh 
lowing  up"  the  advertising.  In  railroad  practice  this 
is  done  through  the  traveling  passenger  agent,  who 
calls  on  the  foreign  agents  periodically. 

The  time-table  folders  are  the  most  important  single 
feature  of  the  advertising,  with  newspapers  and  maga- 
zines following  closely.  All  this  is  now  paid  for  in  cash, 
and  the  sums  so  employed  during  the  year  are  often 
very  large.  The  public  in  large  cities  is  appealed  to 
through  the  metropolitan  dailies,  the  rural  public 
through  the  ''mail  order  weeklies"  as  they  are  called, 
wiiose  subscribers  are  made  up  entirely  of  ''out-of-town" 
people,  and  generally  through  such  publications  as  the 
Saturday  Evening  Post  and  the  monthly  magazines,  the 
cost  of  these  last  being  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
form  of  advertising. 

In  addition  some  "free"  advertising  is  occasionally 
secured  from  the  newspapers  through  sending  notices 
of  interest  to  the  public  as  to  some  event  or  new  feature 
pertaining  to  the  road,  and  on  rare  occasions  editorial 
comment  in  influential  papers  on  such  features.  Such 
editorials  or  notices,  especially  when  they  contain  catch 


TRAFFIC  DEPAEJMEXT  189 

phrases,  are  reprinted  and  sent  out  witli  all  United 
States  mail  of  the  company. 

Electric  signs,  bill  boards,  and  street  cars  are 
employed  by  some  roads  to  a  very  large  extent.  Lec- 
tures are  given  at  fairs,  land  shows,  and  other  gather- 
ings on  such  subjects  as  cattle  raising  in  the  Northwest, 
truck  farming,  dry  farming,  irrigation,  and  places  of 
interest  (as  Glacier  Park,  Colo.,  and  California).  This 
latter  feature  of  advertising  is  not  so  connnon  now  as 
formerly. 

Preparing  advertisements,  making  contracts  for  them, 
and  checking  up  to  see  that  they  appear  and  are  dis- 
played as  agreed  upon,  is  special  work  and  is  taken 
care  of  by  a  buroau  in  the  passenger  department. 

Railway  Passenger  Associations 

There  are  many  associations  of  this  kind  in  the  country 
and  their  work  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the 
passenger  traffic  departments  of  the  railroads.  The 
Central  Passenger  Association  of  Chicago  is  the  largest 
and  most  important  of  these.  Its  territory  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Central  Freight  Association 
and  its  work  in  relation  to  passenger  traffic  is  much  the 
same  as  the  work  of  that  association  in  relation  to 
freight  traffic.  A  detailed  description  of  its  organiza- 
tion would  be  anticipation  to  a  large  extent  of  what  will 
be  said  of  the  freight  association  and  is  therefore 
omitted. 


CHAPTER  XV 

TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT— AUXILIARY  DEPARTMENTS 

There  are  a  number  of  departments  and  associations 
whicli  may  or  may  not  be  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  traffic  department,  but  which  in  any  event  are 
utilized  to  a  considerable  extent  by  that  department  in 
securing  additional  business  and  adjusting  differences 
between  the  road  and  its  patrons. 

Freight  Claim  Department 

The  claim  department  is  handled  in  various  ways 
by  individual  railroads.  In  some  instances  it  is  in  the 
legal  department  entirely.  In  others,  loss  and  damage 
and  overcharge  claims  are  handled  by  the  traffic  depart- 
ment and  personal  injury  by  the  legal  department.  On 
some  roads,  the  loss  and  damage  claims  are  handled  in 
the  traffic  department  and  overcharge  claims  in  the 
accounting  department.  On  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island 
&  Pacific  Railway  and  some  other  roads,  loss,  damage, 
and  overcharge  claims  are  handled  by  the  accounting 
department  and  personal  injury  claims  by  the  legal 
department. 

In  whatever  way  it  may  be  arranged,  the  adjustment 
of  all  claims,  except  perhaps  those  covering  personal 
injury,  involves  the  cooperation  of  the  traffic  and  audit- 
ing  and  often  the  legal  department. 

The  claims  for  losses  occasioned  in  transportation  of 
property  fall  into  one  of  the  following  divisions: 

(1)  Loss  of  property,  which  the  company  fails  to 
deliver. 

190 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT 


191 


(2)  Damage  to  articles  while  in  possession  of  the 
company. 

(3)  Charges  collected  in  excess  of  legal  rate  (called 
overcharge  claims). 

The  investigation  of  claims  prior  to  settlement  with 
the  OA\Tier  of  the  property  has  in  the  past  occasioned 
many  embarrassments  to  the  carriers,  through  the  diver- 
sion of  business  to  competing  lines  by  aggrieved  indi- 
viduals, and  consequently  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  claims  be  settled  as  promptly  as  possible. 

In  some  cases  after  a  claim  has  been  investigated 
and  the  voucher  issued  in  favor  of  the  claimant,  the 
voucher  is  given  to  the  ti'aveling  or  solicitating  agent 
to  deliver  to  the  claimant.  This  affords  an  opportunity 
to  solicit  additional  business  at  the  time  of  his  visit. 

Figure  22  shows  a  typical  organization  for  the  freight 
claim  department. 


Freiohl  Clainr.  Agenl 


Chief  Clerk 


Voucher  Clerk 


Overcharoe 
Invesligators 


Loss  Investigators 
Oanrtage  Investigators 


Rate  Clerks 
Revision  Clerks 


Jacket  and  File 
Clerk 


I  Over,  Short  and  Damage 
Report  Clerks 


Record   Clerks 


Fig.  22. — Typical  Organization  of  a  Freight  Claim  Department 

The  freight  claim  agent  exercises  general  supervision 
over  the  department,  passing  upon  such  claims  as  are 
particularly  vexatious  and  conferring  with  the  legal 
department   when   necessaiy,    attending   the   periodical 


192    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

meetings  of  the  freight  claim  association  of  which  he 
is  by  virtue  of  his  office  a  member,  and  acting  sometimes 
as  a  member  on  one  or  more  of  the  standing  committees 
of  that  association. 

The  voucher  clerk  prepares  vouchers  in  favor  of  the 
claimants. 

I'he  loss  and  damage  investigators  specialize  in  claims 
where  there  has  been  loss  or  damage  to  the  property 
tendered  the  carrier  for  transportation. 

The  overcharge  investigators  handle  all  claims  where 
it  is  alleged  that  the  carriers  or  their  connections  have 
exacted  from  the  owner  of  the  property  a  sum  in  excess 
of  that  lawfully  established  by  the  tariff  applicable 
thereon. 

Industrial  Bueeau 

Often  the  industrial  bureau  is  in  charge  of  industrial 
officers  independent  of  the  traffic  department.  The  work 
of  the  bureau  is  so  intimately  connected  with  traffic 
work  that  it  is  discussed  here.  The  bureau  gathers 
all  facts  and  statistics  relating  to  the  natural  resources 
of  territory  tributary  to  its  line,  supplementing  this  A\4th 
a  study  of  markets  for  various  commodities  which  may 
be  produced  economically  from  such  resources.  These 
facts  it  proceeds  to  advertise  by  correspondence  and 
personal  work  among  corporations  and  indi\T.duals 
engaged  in  the  production  and  sale  of  such  commodities. 

The  bureau  maintains  intimate  relations  with  manu- 
facturers and  large  shippers  on  its  line,  reporting  as  to 
sources  of  supply  of  raw  materials  used  by  manufac- 
turers and  markets  for  products  of  factories  located 
on  the  line.  In  connection  with  this  work,  all  informa- 
tion as  to  climatic  conditions  available,  labor  rates  of 
wages  paid,  sources  of  supply  of  fuel  or  power  and  its 
post,  and  all  other  conditions  affecting  the  manufacture 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  193 

or  distribution  of  commodities  are  compiled  and  pre- 
sented to  those  who  are  interested  in  the  territory  from 
an  industrial  standpoint. 

Not  infrequently  this  involves  a  large  survey  from 
the  traffic  department  standpoint  and  the  preparation 
of  data  sbon^ing  rates  on  inbound  commodities  and 
rates  on  manufactured  products  to  the  more  important 
consuming"  points  throughout  the  United  States. 

Purchasing  Department 

This  department  is  not  untler  tlie  jurisdiction  of  the 
traffic  department.  The  officer  in  charge,  that  is  the  pur- 
chasing agent,  reports  to  one  of  the  chief  executives, 
his  purchases  being  made  on  requisitions. 

The  railroads  are  the  largest  consumers  of  a  great 
many  articles  of  commerce.  Rails,  ties,  stone,  cement,  and 
the  like,  as  well  as  thousands  of  other  articles  that  enter 
into  their  activities,  are  purchased  by  them  in  innn(»nse 
quantities. 

The  prices  on  these  commodities  in  many  instances 
being  the  same,  railway  contracts  are  often  let  on  recom- 
mendation of  the  traffic  department  to  industries  or 
manufacturers  that  are  favorable  to  the  road  and  who  in 
return  route  a  considerable  portion  of  their  business 
over  the  lines  of  the  carrier  in  question. 

li.Mi.WAV  Fkeiciit  Associations 

Reference  lias  been  made  in  the  preceding  pages 
of  this  chapter  to  associations  of  railways  and  their 
participation  in  the  making  of  rates,  divisions,  and 
such  matters.  There  are  mnny  associations  of  tiiis  kind 
in  the  country  and  tlieir  work  is  of  the  gi-eatest  impor- 
tance to  the  traffic  dei)artnient  of  nil  railroads.  The 
Central    Freight    Assoeintion,    with    offices    in    Chicago, 


194    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

is  one  of  the  most  important,  from  the  standpoint  oi 
volume  of  tonnage  and  revenue  of  the  member  lines, 
and  a  description  of  its  organization,  purposes,  and  work 
will  convey  a  very  good  idea  of  the  work  of  them  all. 

Central  Freight  Association 

The  following,  taken  largely  from  the  ''Articles  of 
Organization"  of  the  association,  explains  its  member- 
ship, territory,^  and  purposes,  and  the  duties  of  its 
members : 


FiQ.  23. — Map  Showing  Central  Freight  Association  Territory 

Purposes  of  the  Association 

The  purposes  of  this  Association  are : 

To  enable  the  members  to  confer,  advise,  and  cooperate  with 
each  other  and  with  other  roads  upon  the  subjects  of  divisions 

'  The  association  is  composed  of  roads  located  within  the  territory  shown 
on  the  sketch  map  (Figure  23)  drawn  from  the  description  contained  in 
the  "Articles." 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  195 

j)f  through  rates,  statistics,  classifications,  rules,  regulations,  and 
inspection,  and  to  secure  to  the  members  the  interchange  and 
promulgation  of  authentic  information  in  regard  to  the  traffic 
and  tariffs  of  rates  of  the  respective  parties,  and  to  aid  in  secur- 
ing compliance  with  the  laws  of  the  states,  and  of  the  United 
States  relating  to  and  regulating  commerce. 
The  members,  for  the  purposes  aforesaid,  agree: 

(a)  To  submit  all  questions  of  common  interest  upon  which 
action  is  desired  to  the  association,  to  be  considered  promptly 
under  its  rules. 

(b)  To  arbitrate  all  differences  upon  questions  coming  within 
the  scope  of  this  agreement  which  are  not  otherwise  properly 
reconciled. 

(c)  Each  member  agrees  that  it  will  send  to  the  chairman 
two  copies  of  each  local  and  joint  state  and  interstate  tariff 
of  rates  and  of  changes  therein,  also  classification  and  rules  at 
the  time  of  making,  issuing,  or  filing  the  same  with  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission ;  also  of  all  agreements  or  arrangements 
with  other  common  carriers  in  relation  to  the  rates  and  divi- 
sions upon  traffic  coming  in  whole  or  in  part  under  this  agree- 
ment, when  such  arrangement  or  agreement  is  entered  into. 

Chairman. — The  executive  officer  of  the  association  is  the 
chairman.  He  presides  at  meetings  of  the  association  and  repre- 
sents it  in  all  negotiations  witli  other  associations.  All  com- 
munications regarding  division  of  rates  between  lines  in  otlier 
associations  and  this  association  ai'C  through  the  chairman.  He 
compiles  and  issues  the  statements,  statistics,  and  joint  publica- 
tions authorized  by  the  association. 

In  case  of  disagreement  in  any  eonunittee  on  a  subject  upon 
which  prompt  action  is  required  the  question  at  issue  is  sub- 
mitted to  the  chairman  for  decision.  On  objection  by  any  mem- 
ber to  this  decision  the  matter  is  referred  to  the  association. 

Other  Bureaus  and  Committees. — The  as.sociation  maintains 
the  Central  Freight  Association  Inspecting  and  Weighing 
Bureau  and  in  coiiperation  Avith  other  associations  maintains  the 
Official  Cla.ssification  Committee. 

The  Chicago  &  Ohio  River  Conunittee.  the  oMicliigan  Freight 
Committee,  tlie  St.  Louis  Eastbound  Freight  Committee,  and 
the  St.  Louis-Cincinnati-Louisville  Freight  Committee  are  the 
large  standing  committees  of  the  association.  There  are  also 
committees  at  junction  points  to  handle  local  matters,  each  with 
a  chairman  and  secretaiy.  The  major  committees  maintain  sepa- 
rate organizations  under  the  supervision  of  officers  as  follows : 

Central  Freight  Association  Inspection  and  Weighing  BuroaM. 
chief  inspector. 

Chicago  and  Ohio  River  Committee,  secretary. 

Michigan  Freight  Committee,  chairman. 


196    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

St.  Louis  Eastbound  Freight  Committee,  chairman. 

St.  Louis-Cincinnati-Loiiisville  Freight  Committee,  chairman. 

Standing  Covimittees. — The  titles  of  the  committees  of  the 
association  with  an  explanation  of  their  functions  will  indicate 
the  work  covered  by  the  association. 

The  membership  on  the  various  committees  noted  following 
is  made  up  from  the  traffic  officials  of  member  lines.  They  are 
selected  by  the  association  in  general  meeting,  due  consideration 
being  given  to  the  interests  of  the  various  carriers.  For  instance 
a  railroad  operating  in  Michigan  would  not  be  accorded  repre- 
sentation on  the  committee  on  relation  with  southern  roads  or  a 
strictly  Indiana  line  on  the  committee  on  relation  with  trunk 
lines  for  the  reason  that  the  traffic  officials  of  such  lines  would 
not  be  in  close  touch  with  any  of  the  matters  which  would  ordi- 
narily come  up.  Neither  would  a  coal-carrying  road  be  assigned 
to  the  lumber  committee. 

The  rules  and  regulations  committee  considers  and  recom- 
mends for  association  action  all  rules  and  regulations  governing 
traffic  movement  except  rates — such  as  minimum  weights,  weigh- 
ing cars  and  contents,  estimated  weights,  milling-in-transit,  fabri- 
cation, and  extension  of  through  billing  arrangements  and 
storage. 

The  lumber  committee  considers  and  recommends  for  associa- 
tion action  rates  on  lumber  and  forest  products;  the  salt  com- 
mittee on  salt;  the  iron  and  steel  committee  on  iron  and  steel 
and  articles  manufactured  therefrom;  the  live  stock,  packing- 
house products,  grain  and  grain  products  committee  establishes 
rates  on  these  commodities ;  the  brick  committee  on  all  clay  prod- 
ucts, sand,  and  gravel;  the  coal  and  coke  committee  has  juris- 
diction over  rates  on  gas  house  coke  or  by-product  coke — it  has 
no  jurisdiction  over  coal  or  furnace  coke  rates ;  the  lime  com- 
mittee over  rates  on  lime ;  the  uniform  basis  of  rates  committee 
has  jurisdiction  over  rates  which  are  not  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction of  any  of  the  foregoing  committees. 

The  coal  and  coke  committee  considers  and  recommends  for 
association  action  matters  of  all  natures  pertaining  to  coal  and 
coke  traffic.  The  large  coal  carrying  roads  have  a  general  coal 
and  ore  agent  who  represents  his  line  on  this  committee. 

The  committee  on  relations  with  western  roads  considers  and 
recommends  for  association  action  the  establishment  of  all 
through  rates,  rules,  and  matters  on  interchange  traffic  in  both 
directions  between  Central  Freight  Association  roads  and  their 
western  connections. 

The  committee  on  relations  with  southern  roads  considers  and 
recommends  for  association  action  such  matters  in  both  direc- 
tions as  to  southern  roads. 

The  committee  on  relations  with  trunk  lines  (Eastern  Trunk 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT 


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198    EAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Lines)  considers  and  recommends  to  the  association  for  action 
such  matters  on  eastbound  rates  only  as  to  eastern  lines. 

The  eastbound  percentage  committee  has  charge  of  the  group- 
ing of  points  in  the  percentage  groups  in  Central  Freight  Asso- 
ciation Territory  whose  eastbound  rates  are  based  on  a  per- 
centage of  the  Chicago-New  York  rate. 

The  uniform  basis  for  rates  committee  considers  and  recom- 
mends to  the  association  for  action  all  propositions  involving  an 
advance  or  reduction  in  rates.  This  is  probably  the  most 
important  of  all  the  standing  committees  of  the  association. 

These  committees  have  jurisdiction  over  the  divisions  of  rates 
between  Central  Freight  Association  and  other  territories  but 
have  none  over  division  of  rates  between  points  both  of  which 
are  situated  in  Central  Freight  Association  Territory. 

Office  Organization. — The  action  of  these  several  committees 
and  of  the  association  itself — termed  for  convenience  "associa- 
tion legislation" — is  incorporated  in  the  form  of  printed  "In- 
formation Circulars"  which  are  sent  to  the  various  officers  of 
member  railroads. 

The  association,  for  its  member  railroads,  and  in  cooperation 
with  other  associations,  compiles  and  publishes  certain  ' '  agency ' ' 
tariffs  and  it  must  in  consequence  maintain  a  very  considerable 
tariff  bureau.  In  addition,  notices  of  meetings,  dockets,  and 
other  matters  relating  to  association  and  committee  meetings  and 
conferences  necessitates  a  rather  extensive  organization  for  print- 
ing, mailing,  and  typing  work. 

Figure  24  shows  the  office  organization  required  in  perform- 
ing the  work  mentioned: 

The  secretary  is  in  effect  a  vice  chairman  of  the  association 
and  presides  over  many  of  the  association  and  committee  meet- 
ings. In  addition,  he  is  chairman  of  the  very  important  standing 
switching  committee,  of  which  all  roads  entering  Chicago  are 
members  and  for  which  he  issues  switching  tariffs. 

The  accounting  department  reports  to  the  chairman,  the 
secretary,  and  the  chief  clerk  on  various  matters  of  accounting. 

The  chief  clerk  is  responsible  for  the  management  of  the  office 
force  and  its  discipline.  He  attends  to  a  large  part  of  the  office 
correspondence,  has  general  supervision  of  all  of  it,  and  in  addi- 
tion has  charge  of  certain  specified  subjects.  When  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  service  require  it,  he  acts  as  chairman  of  committee 
meetings. 

The  circular  department  has  charge  of  the  preparation  of  the 
"Information  Circulars"  advising  members  of  association 
legislation. 

The  weighing  and  mailing  of  Information  Circulars,  notices 
of  meetings,  docket  advices,  proceedings  of  meetings,  tariffs,  sup- 
plements, and  division  sheets  to  members   (and  to  a  large  list 


TRAFFIC  DEPARTMENT  199 

of  foreign  roads  and  shippers  as  to  tariffs)  is  in  charge  of  the 
mailing  department. 

The  printing  department  is  provided  with  mimeographs,  dup- 
licators, and  multigraphs  and  does  practically  all  the  association 
printing  except  tariffs  and  supplements.  The  chief  of  this 
department  also  has  charge  of  the  purchase  and  distribution  of 
office  and  printing-room  supplies. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
accounting  department 

Historical, 

For  the  reason  that  in  connection  with  this  course 
there  has  been  prepared  a  work  dealing  with  railway 
accounting,  much  of  the  detail  that  might  be  incorpo- 
rated in  this  chapter  has  been  omitted  and  will  be 
found  in  the  other  work. 

In  the  earlier  history  of  railroads,  freight  accounts 
were  kept  in  the  offices  of  the  general  freight  agent 
and  passenger  accounts  were  kept  in  the  offices  of  the 
general  passenger  agent,  disbursements  in  the  superin- 
tendent's office,  and  other  accounts  in  various  traffic  and 
operating  departments.  Summaries  of  these  were  sent 
to  the  treasurer  or  some  other  designated  officer  who 
issued  periodical  statements  showing  the  net  results  of 
the  operation  for  the  property  as  a  whole.  These  state- 
ments, coming  from  such  divergent  sources,  lacked 
uniformity,  and  intelligent  comparisons  were  impossible. 
The  need  of  a  central  authority  where  all  accounts 
could  be  carefully  supervised  and  compiled  on  a  uniform 
basis  (in  order  to  conserve  the  revenues  of  the  company 
and  record  data  for  useful  comparisons  of  all  depart- 
ments with  each  other,  with  past  performances,  and 
with  other  companies)  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
the  accounting  department. 

Prior  to  1880  each  railroad  treated  all  other  railroad 
companies  practically  as  it  treated  any  other  shipper, 
requiring  invoices  or  manifests  of  shipments  tendered 

200 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  201 

it,  in  much  the  same  way  as  it  required  the  shipping 
ticket  of  a  business  house,  and  in  delivering  a  shipment 
to  another  railroad  it  required  the  payment  of  charges 
at  the  time  of  the  delivery  in  the  same  manner  as  from 
other  consignees.  Passengers  were  interchanged  by 
the  use  of  coupon  tickets,  but  there  was  no  uniformity 
of  method  in  settling  such  interchange  of  business  among 
the  railroads. 

Interline  billing  (billing  of  freight  moving  over  two 
or  more  roads)  was  inaugurated  to  reduce  expense  and 
avoid  delays  and  oftentimes  blockades  at  interchange 
points.  This  system  has  grown  so  that  much  the  larger 
part  of  freight  moving  over  more  than  one  railroad  is 
handled  on  through  way-bills,  reading  from  point  of 
origin  to  point  of  destination,  without  regard  to  the 
number  of  roads  participating  in  transportation.  This 
interchange  has  necessitated  a  uniform  system  of 
accounting,  which  has  been  inaugurated  largely  through 
the  American  Railway  Accounting  Officers'  Association, 
to  which  the  chief  accounting  officers  of  practically  all 
the  railroads  of  this  country  belong.  It  has,  also,  through 
establishing  uniform  accounting  methods,  made  the  sta- 
tistics of  various  railroads  comparable  one  with  another. 

General 

The  accounting  department  certifies  to  the  correctness 
of  all  figures  of  revenues  and  disbursements  and  pre- 
pares the  entries  which  appear  in  the  company's  general 
books.  It  prepares  all  statistics  and  figures  required  by 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  and  much  addi- 
tional statistical  information  used  by  heads  of  dej)art- 
ments  responsible  for  the  economical  operation  of  the 
property.  The  relation  between  the  accounting  depart- 
ment and  the  board  of  directors  and  heads  of  oper- 
ating departments  is  most  intimate. 


202    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Auditing',  as  distinguished  from  accounting,  determines 
this  accuracy.  The  reports  of  all  revenue-receiving  by 
this  department  as  well  as  pay  rolls,  vouchers,  and 
statements  of  amounts  due  to  and  from  other  coi'i)or- 
ations  and  individuals,  accounting  for  the  revenue  and 
disbursements,  involve  the  handling  of  a  great  mass  of 
detail  which  must  be  checked  and  prepared  for  the 
entries  in  general  books  of  the  company. 

The  organization  of  the  accounting  department  falls 
under  three  main  heads — receipts,  disbursements,  and 
general  accounting.  The  department  of  receipts  is 
subdivided  into  passenger,  freight,  and  miscellaneous 
revenue,  with  a  division  officer  in  charge  of  each;  dis- 
bursement accounts  sometimes  are  subdivided  into 
motive  power  accounts  and  maintenance  of  way  accounts. 

There  are  two  main  objects  to  be  attained  by  any 
system  of  railway  accounting:  first,  to  safe.aniard  an 
account  for  all  revenue  received  and  paid  out  or  dis- 
bursed; second,  to  have  a  complete  record  of  all  trans- 
actions  involving  such   revenue. 

Under  receipts  are  classified  all  earnings  from  trans- 
portation of  freight,  passengers,  mail,  express,  baggage, 
milk,  and  the  like,  and  the  system  of  accounting  pro- 
vides for  reports  and  remittances,  which  show  that 
all  revenue  due  has  been  collected  by  agents,  conductors, 
and  others  and  has  been  accounted  for  by  the  auditors 
and  turned  over  to  the  treasurer.  All  mone7>^  paid  out 
by  the  company  is  likewise  shown  by  receipted  voucher 
or  other  evidence  of  payment,  giving  all  details  of  the 
nature  and  amount  of  the  payment,  name  of  payee,  and 
other  information,  so  that  a  complete  history  of  each 
separate  payment  of  money  is  recorded. 

Comptroller 

Generally  speaking,  the  comptroller  has  super\'ision 
of  all  accounts  and  statistics,  and  prescribes  the  system 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  203 

under  which  they  are  kept,  and  he  has  the  power  to 
enforce  such  regulations  and  rules  as  he  may  make  in 
maintaining  his  system  of  accounting,  and  to  demand 
from  any  official  or  employee  such  specific  information 
in  regard  to  matters  affecting  accounting  as  he  may 
require.  He  is  charged  with  the  duty  of  furnishing 
the  board  of  directors  with  a  report  of  all  receipts 
and  disbursements  and  preparing  such  statements  and 
statistics  as  they  may  require. 

He  maintains  a  record  of  all  securities  owned  by  the 
company  and  examines  all  securities  in  the  custody  of 
the  treasurer  or  trustees  of  various  funds  at  stated 
intervals — usually  once  a  year — having  the  power  to 
do  so  at  any  time.  At  stated  intervals,  usually  during 
a  three  months'  period,  he  chocks  the  treasurer's  cash 
actually  on  hand  and  his  bank  deposits.  He  verifies  the 
correctness  of  the  treasurer's  daily  reports  of  receipts 
and  disbursements. 

The  general  ledger  which  records  the  net  results  of 
all  transactions  of  the  company  is  kept  in  the  comp- 
troller's office  and  receipted  vouchers  which  have  been 
paid  by  the  treasurer  are  kept  in  the  files  of  his  depart- 
inent. 

When  they  are  properly  certified  to  by  the  author- 
ized officer  he  approves  all  pay  rolls,  vouchers,  loss  and 
damage  and  overcharge  claims,  and  the  statements  of 
amounts  due  by  or  to  other  companies  on  account  of 
traffic  and  equipment  service. 

He  has  charge  of  the  fidelity  bonds  of  all  officers 
and  employees  of  the  company.  He  has  the  power  of 
jippointing  all  officers  and  employees  in  his  department 

Auditors 

Reporting  to  the  comptroller,  or  to  a  general  auditor, 
are  two  classes  of  auditors:  viz.,  those  having  charge 
of    receipts    and    those    having    charge    of   disbursements 


2»/4     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

In  its  simplest  form  the  accounting  department  nsually 
lias  an  auditor  of  freight  receipts,  an  auditor  of  pas- 
senger receipts,  and  an  auditor  of  disbursements.  On 
many  systems  there  is  a  further  division  of  accounting. 
From  the  description  of  various  organizations  given 
hiter  it  will  be  noted  that  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
has  eight  auditors  and  the  Union  Pacific  System  a  general 
auditor  with  five  auditors  and  one  assistant  auditor, 
reporting  to  the  comptroller. 

Auditor  of  Freight  Receipts 

This  auditor  is  responsible  for  the  enforcement  of 
the  regulations  and  the  rules  as  to  reports  and  returns 
from  officers,  agents,  and  all  employees  of  the  company 
having  anything  to  do  with  the  freight  traffic  accounts. 
He  prepares  the  statements  showing  the  amounts  due 
to  or  by  agents  or  other  railroad  companies  and  indi- 
viduals on  account  of  freight  traffic. 

Statistics 

For  statistical  and  other  purposes,  the  earnings  and 
expenses  are  sometimes  determined  separately  for  each 
operating  division,  the  auditor  making  a  separate  divi- 
sion balance  sheet.  These  reports  show  not  only  the 
freight  moving  between  stations  both  of  which  are  on 
the  same  division  but  between  the  stations  under  con- 
sideration and  stations  on  other  divisions  and  on  foreign 
roads.  It  is  made  up  by  combining  the  station  agent's 
report  of  the  home  road  and  the  carbon  copies  of  the 
way-bills  of  the  foreign  lines,  or  abstracts  of  them. 

In  addition  statements  are  made  giving  the  total 
tonnage  of  each  class  and  of  selected  commodities  car- 
ried, the  total  receipts,  the  total  mileage  per  ton  of 
freight  and  other  statistical  information  required  by 
operating  and  traffic  officials. 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  205 

There  is  no  established  or  uniform  rule  for  making 
the  apportionment  by  states.  When  required  it  is  usually 
figured  either  on  a  rate  prorate  or  on  a  mileage  prorate. 
If  a  shipment  is  between  two  points,  both  of  which  are  in 
one  state,  no  division  is  necessary.  On  a  shipment 
from,  say,  Chicago  to  Denver,  which  moves  in  the  four 
states  of  Illinois,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  and  Colorado,  the 
total  earnings  are  apportioned  among  the  several  states 
on  the  basis  of  the  mileage  traveled  by  the  shipment 
in  each  state,  or  the  rates  making  up  the  through  rate. 
Such  apportionments  are  valuable  not  only  from  a 
statistical  standfjoint,  but  for  the  purpose  of  taxation  in 
those  states  where  railroad  companies  are  taxed  on  the 
basis  of  gross  earnings. 

These  separate  monthly  reports  of  all  agents  must 
be  gone  over  as  many  times  as  there  are  different  classes 
of  fig-uros  to  be  compiled.  This  involves  an  immense 
amount  of  labor  and  to  simplify  the  work  many  account- 
ing departments  use  what  is  known  as  the  Hollerith 
machine. 

This  machine  punches  holes  in  the  figures  printed  on 
a  card,  a  card  being  punched  for  each  way-bill.  Stations 
and  commodities  are  given  certain  numbers.  Weights, 
dollars,  cents,  and  dates  can  of  course  be  easily 
expressed  in  numbers,  so  that  the  way-bill  can  be  dupli- 
cated in  all  details,  by  punching  the  proper  printed 
figures  out  of  the  card.  The  cards  are  then  nm  through 
a  ''sorting"  machine  which  takes  out  all  those  having 
like  information,  as  from  the  same  station,  or  for  same 
commodities.  A  boy  can  handle  between  ten  thousand 
and  fifteen  thousand  cards  per  hour  on  these  machines. 
Such  cards  can  then  be  totaled  by  another  machine 
which  will  handle  from  four  hundred  to  six  hundred 
cards  x>er  hour  for  any  desired  set  of  figures,  such  as 
pounds,  or  dollars  and  cents. 

From   the  daily  "freight  received"   reports,   through 


206    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

the  use  of  these  machines,  the  daily  freight  earnings 
can  be  very  closely  approximated;  within  one  per  cent 
on  the  Pennsylvania.  Tlie  published  weekly  earnings 
of  that  railroad  are  compiled  in  this  way. 

Auditor  of  Revenue 

The  auditors  of  freight  and  passenger  receipts  on 
a  small  system  keep  the  accounts  with  the  agents  of 
their  company.  On  the  larger  systems  there  is  an  inter- 
mediate auditor  of  revenue,  between  the  auditors  first 
mentioned  and  the  comptroller  (or  general  auditor). 
The  statistics  compiled  from  agents'  reports  by  the  first- 
named  auditors  go  direct  to  the  general  auditor,  but 
the  accounts  dealing  with  revenue  derived  from  freight 
and  passenger  traffic  come  through  the  office  of  the 
auditor  of  revenue.  He  keeps  an  individual  account  with 
each  agent  in  a  set  of  ledgers.  The  agent  is  debited 
with  the  balance  against  him  as  showTi  by  the  state- 
ments of  the  auditors  of  freight,  passenger,  and  miscel- 
laneous accounts  and  is  credited  ^^dth  cash  remittances 
as  shown  by  the  treasurer's  statement.  The  balance  is 
brought  down  and  the  sum  of  all  these  balances  is  shown 
in  the  general  balance  sheet  as  **  Amounts  due  from 
agents  or  others." 

Auditor  of  Disbursements 

This  auditor  has  immediate  charge  of  all  accounts 
relating  to  disbursements.  He  examines  all  bills  for 
which  vouchers  are  dra^Ti,  and  pay  rolls,  and  certifies 
them  to  the  comptroller  (or  general  auditor).  He  dis- 
tributes all  disbursements  made  to  their  proper  accounts 
and  prepares  a  monthly  statement  showing  the  amount 
chargeable  to  each  of  the  items  as  prescribed  by  the 
classification  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission. 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  207 

All  railroad  disbursements  are  finally  resolved  into 
two  classes:  material  and  labor.  As  used  in  railroad 
accounts,  all  payments  other  than  those  made  on  the 
pay  roll  are  treated  as  material;  even  in  the  case  of 
contract  work  which  involves  practically  nothing  but 
labor — as  in  a  grading  contract — so  far  as  the  account- 
ing is  concerned,  it  is  treated  as  material. 

The  auditor  in  accounting  for  disbursements  under 
the  heading  of  material  has  to  do  with  vouchers,  drafts, 
bills,  and  material  distribution. 

The  statistical  division  of  the  auditor  of  disbursements 
furnishes  the  cost  of  various  items  by  operating  divi- 
sions (sometimes  divided  between  main  and  branch 
lines)  and  districts — the  operating  division  being  that 
in  charge  of  one  set  of  division  officers  and  the  dis- 
trict being  that  portion  of  the  road  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  general  superintendent,  comprising  from  three 
to  six  such  divisions. 

Operating  accounts  are  subdivided  to  determine  vari- 
ous things  of  interest  to  officials  charged  with  operation ; 
for  instance,  the  unit  cost  per  train,  ton,  or  passenger 
mile,  for  station  service,  yard  service,  engine  service, 
train  ser\^ice,  and  such  data.  These  are  prepared  for 
the  current  month  and  are  compared  with  the  previous 
month,  and  with  the  same  month  of  the  preceding  year, 
serving  as  an  index  to  the  relative  efficiency  of  tlie 
present  as  compared  with  past  performances.  Tlie  offi- 
cers at  the  head  of  the  operating  department  use  these 
unit  costs  in  judging  also  of  the  relative  efficiency  of  the 
officials  on  one  division  with  those  on  another,  tlie  fig- 
ures being  prepared  as  stated  for  each  division  sepa- 
rately. 

It  also  prepares  a  statement  of  the  performance  of 
each  locomotive  as  to  miles  run,  fuel  and  oil  used,  and 
other  data,  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  one  engine  with 
another,  or  one  type  of  engine  with  another  typo. 


208    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
Outside  Supervision 

In  order  to  insure  the  carrying  out  in  practice  of  rules 
which  he  establishes  for  making  proper  returns  to  his 
department,  the  auditor  employs  traveling  auditors,  who 
instruct  various  employees  of  the  company  in  matters 
relating  to  such  rules  and  returns.  In  addition,  at 
irregular  intervals,  the  accounts  of  station  and  other 
agents  are  audited  by  them  to  determine  their  accuracy. 

Train  Auditors 

The  following  is  a  description^  of  a  passenger  train 
audit  system  in  use  on  several  large  railroad  systems, 
which  will  serve  to  show  the  methods  employed  by  the 
accounting  department  in  determining  that  all  revenue 
due  is  in  fact  received  by  the  company. 

Conductors  are  required  to  have  in  their  possession  at  all  times 
checkable  evidence  of  the  transportation  of  every  passenger  on 
the  train;  each  train  auditor  carries  a  commission  of  authority 
signed  by  the  operating  vice-president  and  the  general  auditor, 
upon  exhibition  of  which  the  conductor  will  pennit  him  to  take 
and  examine  all  forms  of  transportation  in  his  possession  and 
the  records  in  connection  therewith.  The  train  auditors  may 
board  trains  at  any  point  and  having  made  a  count  of  the  pas- 
sengers then  on  the  train,  see  that  all  are  accounted  for.  Before 
leaving  the  train  the  auditor  fills  out  his  report  showing  the 
condition  of  the  transportation  and  records,  and  gives  the 
conductor  a  copy  of  it. 

Tickets  of  ordinary  issue  are  treated  in  the  usual  manner,  but 
for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  conductors,  and  as  far  as  pos- 
sible reducing  their  work  in  connection  with  tickets  honored 
but  not  taken  up,  local  tickets  have  been  provided,  having  con- 
ductor's train  checks,  which  are  to  be  detached  by  the  conductor 
for  his  run,  the  check  detached  being  accepted  by  the  train 
auditor  as  transportation  for  the  passenger.  Book  tickets,  upon 
which  the  destination  is  to  be  written  or  stamped,  and  some 
forms  of  local  tickets  are  also  provided  with  train  cheeks  to 
be  handled  in  the  same  manner  as  card  tickets.    Mileage  detach- 


^  Railway  Age  Oazette,  January  17,  1913. 


ACCOUNTIiXG  DEPARTMENT  209 

ments  and  cash  fare  recoijits  arc  handled  as  usual.  Pass  si«r- 
nnture  slips  are  required  of  all  holders  of  annual  passes  and 
of  all  trip  passes  which  are  not  taken  up  by  the  conductor.  The 
conductor  is  required  to  show  on  a  form  "Transportation  hon- 
ored, but  not  taken  up"  all  tickets  not  provided  with  a  check  to 
detach  showing  the  initial  and  destination  of  ticket,  form,  and 
number. 

The  check  is  made  absolutely  in  tlie  open,  thereby  removing 
the  odium  that  has  frequently  been  coniiected  with  tlie  checking 
of  passenger  trains. 

Vali'atiox 

[The  following  on  Valuation  was  written  for  this  publi- 
cation by  Mr.  E.  llolbrook,  special  engineer  for  the  Tnion  Pacitic 
and  Southern  Pacific  Railway  Systems. 

He  has  supervised  the  valuation  of  about  25,000  miles  of  rail- 
road during  the  past  few  years.  His  experience  covering  many 
years  as  an  engineer  and  manager,  responsible  for  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance,  and  operation  of  important  railroad  pi-oper- 
ties  in  connection  with  his  work  in  the  valuation  field  has  given 
liim  the  reputation  in  railroad  circles  of  being  one  of  the  best 
authorities  on  valuation  in  the  country.] 

Railroad  valuation  is  as  yot  in  a  nebulous  condition, 
but  probably  it  will  eventually  require  a  distinct  depart- 
ment in  railroad  organization,  reporting  to  the  execu- 
tives, or  there  may  be  simply  a  set  form  of  re])orts 
made  by  the  auditor  or  comptroller,  the  details  of  which 
will  be  supplied  by  the  heads  of  departments. 

Valuation  work  is  at  present  used  in  connection  with 
various  leases,  contracts,  assessments,  rate  cases,  and 
state  and  federal  valuation,  wliich  may  be  used  for 
various  purposes.  Just  now  federal  valuation  over- 
shadows all  the  others  and  determines  to  a  great  extent 
what  the  organization  for  valuation  work  shall  be. 

Valuation  Engineer 

Valuation  work,  so  far  at  least  as  determining  pliy>ic;il 
facts  is  conc(>rned,  is  usually   placed   under  tlie  gnicial 


210    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

supervision  of  an  official  designated  as  the  valuation 
engineer. 

At  the  present  stage  of  development  of  valuation, 
its  principal  elements  are  supposed  to  be  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  original  cost  to  date  of  the  property  or 
in  the  estimated  cost  of  reproduction.  There  is  a  con- 
fusion between  the  terms  cost  and  value  and  a  failure 
to  recognize  the  difference  between  a  property  which 
as  a  whole  is  perpetual  in  nature  and  its  transitory 
parts  or  one  which  comes  to  an  end,  such  as  a  hotel  or 
factory.  The  result  is  that  to  date  most  valuations 
made  have  been  very  crude  pieces  of  work  in  which 
value  has  been  taken  to  be  almost,  if  not  quite,  the 
aggregate  of  the  cost  of  the  physical  items,  diminished 
according  to  some  crude  theory  of  depreciation.  It  is 
apparent  that  to  obtain  the  physical  facts  required  for 
valuation,  an  engineer  of  wide  experience  in  construction 
and  maintenance  work  is  necessary.  Usually  the  man 
best  qualified  for  the  work  will  be  found  to  be  the 
chief  engineer  or  engineer  of  maintenance  of  way,  or 
some  assistant  who  can  work  under  their  guidance.  So 
we  come  to  have  the  valuation  engineer. 

Valuation  Cotnmittee 

The  physical  facts  sought  by  the  valuation  engineer 
will  be  found  recorded  either  on  maps,  profiles,  and 
plans,  or  in  the  records  of  the  chief  engineer,  engineer 
of  maintenance  of  way,  superintendent  of  motive  power, 
comptroller,  auditor,  purchasing  agent,  store  keeper,  or 
operating  division  organization,  or  must  be  found  by 
field  investigation. 

It  is  therefore  important  that  the  valuation  engineer 
have  a  staff  or  conmiittee  to  cooperate  with  him.  Such 
a  body  is  called  the  valuation  committee.  It  is  usually 
composed  of  heads   of  departments,   legal,  accounting, 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  211 

land,  etc.,  with  the  valuation  engineer  as  chairman.  They 
meet  to  discuss  principles  of  valuation,  ways  and  means 
of  prosecuting  certain  phases  of  the  work,  and  especially 
the  cooperation  between  the  various  departments,  and 
the  assigning  to  each  of  the  work  it  is  to  do.  This 
committee  may  meet  at  regular  intervals  or  at  the  call 
of  the  chairman.  It  should  be  a  most  important  body 
and  should  not  be  large,  but  every  member  should  be  a 
worker  and  keep  himself  thoroughly  informed  as  to  the 
developments  and  the  requirements  of  the  work.  Heads 
of  departments  other  than  those  on  the  committee  may 
be  called  to  confer  with  it  when  matters  are  being  con- 
sidered which  concern  their  particular  departments. 

Working  Force 

The  valuation  engineer  usually  has  an  office  and  a  field 
force,  with  an  assistant  in  charge  of  his  office  with 
general  supervision  over  its  members.  He  usually  has 
an  office  engineer  who  directs  the  technical  work  to  be 
done  by  the  office  force.  This  force  is  more  or  less 
specialized  as  statisticians,  draftsmen,  computers,  ste- 
nographers, etc.,  and  is  otherwise  assigned  to  certain 
lines  of  work,  such  as  obtaining  information  (historical, 
descriptive,  quantitative,  and  financial)  as  to  land 
transactions;  working  on  bridge  and  structural  prob- 
lems ;  or  providing  grading  or  shop  machinery  and  tools, 
or  equipment.  Each  of  these  requires  men  specially 
fitted  by  past  experience  in  connection  with  the  depart- 
ments involved. 

Field  Work 

When  records  fail  to  disclose  all  the  information 
required,  field  work  must  be  resorted  to  to  supply  it. 
Frequently  plans,  profiles,  and  records  of  original  con- 


212    RAILWAY  UliUANlZATlON  AND  MANAGEMEXT 

struction  have  been  lost  or  destroyed,  making  necessary 
a  complete  resurvey  and  mapping  of  the  line,  togethei- 
with  computing  of  all  quantities,  costs,  etc.  In  most 
cases  a  partial  record  exists  which  must  be  supplemented 
by  field  work  involving  an  investigation  into  abandoned 
property  or  into  hidden  quantities  in  foundations  and 
elsewhere,  or  complete  notes  of  structures  and  parts  of 
the  property. 

The  federal  valuation  field  force  has  roadway  and 
track  parties  who  cross-section  cuts  and  fills,  test  align- 
ment, classify  materials,  check  plans  of  tracks  and 
signals,  etc.,  noting  any  facts  not  furnished  by  the 
records ;  structural  parties  to  examine  bridges  and  build- 
ings, checking  the  same  with  the  plans  if  available, 
taking  the  necessary  measurements,  and  obtaining  all 
information  available  for  original  cost  or  estimated  cost 
of  reproduction;  land  parties  who  examine  all  lands  of 
the  railroad  as  well  as  adjoining  lands,  checking  the 
areas  from  maps  and  examining  records  of  transfer 
or  assessment;  equipment  field  parties  to  obtain  the 
necessary  valuation  data  not  found  in  records  as  to 
equipment  and  also  examining  it  as  to  its  condition; 
shop  machinery  and  tool  parties  to  investigate  this 
subject  and  other  special  parties  as  the  work  may 
require.  There  may  also  be  a  committee  on  unit  prices 
to  examine  into  the  condition  of  prices  of  various  items 
of  expense  including  transportation.  In  the  case  of 
small  or  local  valuation  jobs,  a  single  party  under  a 
competent  head  may  obtain  all  these  various  kinds  of 
necessary  information. 

Pilots 

"Wlien  federal  field  parties  are  working  on  railroad 
valuation,  it  is  necessary  to  supply  them  with  such  maps 
and  plans  as  are  useful  and  also  to  point  out  any  hidden 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  21:5 

quantities,  or,  to  them,  unknown  difficulties  that  have 
been  encountered  in  construction;  also  to  guard  against 
tlie  omission  of  any  items  of  expense  or  value.  There- 
fore a  pilot  thoroughly  equipped  for  this  purpose  is  of 
great  importance.  He  should  be  familiar  with  tlic 
requirements  of  the  particular  phase  of  work  upon  whicli 
the  party  is  engaged  as  well  as  with  the  particular 
property  upon  which  he  is  working.  He  should  spend 
considerable  time  in  advance  of  the  actual  valuation 
work  in  getting  and  arranging  the  information  required. 

Valuation  is  a  special  work  and  should  not  be  caHed 
engineering  nor  given  any  other  designation  than  valua- 
tion, though  it  requires  a  knowledge  more  or  less  exten- 
sive of  engineering  and  other  departments  of  railroad 
work. 

It  is  frequently  better  therefore  for  the  valuation 
force  to  get  its  information  directly  from  the  records  of 
the  department  concerned  with  the  help  of  a  pilot 
belonging  to  the  department  than  to  ask  the  department 
for  it,  because  the  investigators  understand  better  what 
is  wanted,  and  at  the  same  time  it  puts  them  in  better 
shape  for  any  future  defense  of  their  work  that  may  be 
required.  As  an  example :  Federal  Valuation  Order  No. 
14  requires  information  as  to  purchase  price  of  various 
materials  bought  during  a  period  of  ten  years.  This 
recjuires  information  from  the  accounting,  engineering, 
mechanical,  store,  and  transportation  departments.  It 
has  been  found  advisable  in  some  cases  for  the  valuation 
force  to  go  directly  into  the  records  of  these  departments 
with  the  help  of  a  i,>il(^t,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  exphun 
to  all  departments  what  is  wanted.  The  information 
so  obtained  from  the  various  departments  is  then  \nii 
into  a  single  statement. 


214    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 
Size  of  Field  Parties 

For  field  work  of  almost  any  kind  the  minimum  size 
of  a  party  is  three.  Two  men  are  usually  required  to 
get  the  information  by  measuring  or  otherwise  and  the 
third  to  record  it.  If  cross-sections,  signals,  bridges, 
buildings,  etc.,  are  to  be  taken,  measured  or  recorded, 
twos  and  threes  will  be  required  for  each  set  of  opera- 
tions to  be  carried  on  simultaneously.  To  carry  on  all 
the  field  work  or  roadway  and  track  investigations 
simultaneously,  a  party  of  considerable  size  is  neces- 
sary. Usually  it  is  found  advisable  to  use  a  camp  train 
which  can  be  moved  from  station  to  station  as  required, 
with  computers  and  draftsmen  to  work  up  and  check 
the  notes  as  work  progresses.  The  use  of  camp  trains 
also  makes  it  possible  to  have  at  hand,  in  convenient 
shape,  as  many  plans,  profiles,  drawings,  and  reports 
as  may  be  necessary  without  danger  of  losing  them,  and 
the  evenings  offer  an  opportunity  for  conference  between 
the  outside  and  inside  forces  under  the  direction  of  the 
chief  of  the  party,  making  it  possible  to  clean  up  the 
work  as  it  progresses,  which  cannot  be  done  if  the  notes 
of  field  work  are  sent  to  a  distant  office. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

ACCOUNTING    DEPARTMENT-EXAMPLES   OF   ACCOUNTING 
ORGANIZATIONS 

The  following  examples  of  various  accounting  organi- 
zations will  be  instructive  in  connection  with  the  fore- 
going discussion. 

Pennsylvania  Raileoad  Accounting  Organization 

You  will  note  that,  as  sIioavti  in  Fig.  25,  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  is  organized  partly  on  a  regional  basis, 
partly  on  the  basis  of  the  character  of  the  traffic,  and 
partly  on  the  division  between  corporate  and  operating 
work. 

Reporting  to  the  vice  president  at  Philadelphia  are  a 
comptroller  at  Philadelphia  and  another  at  Pittsburgh. 
The  discussion  already  made  of  the  duties  of  these 
officers  will  indicate  the  scope  of  their  duties.  Each  has 
reporting  to  him  two  assistant  comptrollers,  one  in 
charge  of  operating  accounts  and  one  in  charge  of  cor- 
porate affairs. 

Under  each  of  these  assistant  comptrollers  are  certain 
general  accountants  in  charge  of  the  general  books  of 
the  company.  The  auditor  of  revenues  and  the  auditor 
of  expenditures  cover  the  general  field  indicated  by  th(>ir 
names,  and  report  to  both  the  Pittsburgh  and  the  Pliila 
delphia  office.  The  auditing  of  income  is  handled  direct!} 
through  six  officers,  as  follows: 

Auditor,  freight  traffic. 
Auditor,  passenger  traffic. 
Auditor,  local  freiglit  traffiic  at  Philadelphia. 
Auditor,  local  freight  traffic  at  Pittsburgh. 
Auditor,  local  passenger  traffic  at  Philadelphia. 
Auditor,  local  passenger  traffic  at  Pittsburgh. 

215 


216     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


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ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  2 1 7 

This  division  between  local  and  through  business  is 
characteristic  of  the  Pennsylvania  system.  If  you  will 
refer  back  to  Fig.  19  on  page  170,  you  will  notice  a 
similar  division  in  the  traffic  organization,  where  it  was 
shown  that  one  officer  is  in  charge  of  through  traffic  and 
another  in  charge  of  local  affairs. 

The  auditing  of  expenditures  is  divided  between  two 
auditors  of  disbursements,  one  located  at  Philadelphia 
and  one  at  Pittsburgh.  Notice  particularly  the  regional 
accountants  on  the  auditor-of-disbursements  staff. 
These  are  attached  to  the  regional  operating  districts 
and  are  in  close  touch  wuth  the  regional  operating  officers, 
but  are  carried  on  the  pay  roll  of  and  are  responsible  to 
the  auditor  of  disbursements.  These  regional  officers 
of  the  accounting  department  are  in  close  touch  with  the 
operating  officials  for  their  respective  districts,  and  en- 
able the  operating  officers  to  secure  promptly  the  neces- 
sary data  for  their  guidance.  Furthermore,  such  an 
organization  tends  to  accomplisli  two  results  each  of 
which  is  highly  desirable  but  wliich  luive  been  thought 
in  the  past  to  be  incompatible  with  each  other,  namely, 
a  strictly  accounting  organization  handled  solely  by  ac- 
counting experts  and  an  organization  which  kept  the 
accounting  department  in  close  relationship  to  the  gen- 
eral manager  and  his  subordinates.  By  reference  to 
Fig.  19  you  will  notice  that  a  similar  system  has  been 
worked  out  for  co-ordinating  the  traffic  department  witli 
the  operating  officials. 

The  Pennsylvania  system  is  therefore  organized  i)ri- 
marily  upon  the  basis  of  the  character  of  the  traffic,  while 
in  the  discussion  which  follows,  of  the  other  systems,  you 
will  notice  that  other  features  have  been  given  primary 
consideration. 

Union  Pacific  Organization 

In  the  Union  Pacific  organization  chart  (Figure  26) 
it  will  ho  noted  there   is  an   anditoi-   of  (M|ni]"nneiit   and 


218    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 


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220     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

service  accoimts.  In  addition  to  the  actual  accounting 
of  car  service,  the  statistical  work  of  this  department 
is  considerable,  as  car  distribution  is  very  closely 
watched  on  the  Harriman  Lines,  of  which  the  Union 
Pacific  is  a  constituent  part. 

Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  Eatlway 
Oeganizatiox 

The  head  of  the  accounting  organization  is  the  comp 
troller  with  a  general  auditor  reporting  to  him.   Report- 
ing to  the  general  auditor  are  three  auditors  and  the 
heads  of  three  departments. 

The  freight  claim  department  on  this  road  is  in  the 
accounting  organization.  There  is  an  assistant  claim 
agent  with  a  chief  clerk  and  office  organization  similar 
to  that  shown  as  tj^^ical  in  the  chapter  on  the  freight 
traffic  department. 

The  car  service  accountant  reports  directly  to  the 
general  auditor  and  has  charge  of  all  accounts  relating 
to  car  service,  switching  reclaim,  per  diem,  and  relations 
with  other  railroads  arising  from  the  use  of  cars  of  the 
home  and  foreign  lines. 

The  station  agents'  accounts  are  in  charge  of  a  chief 
clerk  in  the  general  auditor's  office.  The  traveling- 
auditors,  who  make  the  station  audits,  are  under  the 
direct  supervision  of  the  chief  traveling  auditor,  who 
reports  to  this  chief  clerk. 

Each  of  the  three  auditors  has  an  assistant  with 
a  chief  clerk,  to  whom  the  department  heads  report.  The 
different  divisions  in  each  auditor's  department,  which 
are  in  charge  of  these  department  heads,  are  not  shown 
in  Figure  27  as  they  are  practically  the  same  on  all 
roads  and  are  shown  in  detail  in  Figure  26 — Union 
Pacific  Railroad — such  as  vouchers,  statistics,  revising, 
rechecking,   filing,    and   interline    accounts.      The    train 


ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT  221 

auditors   report  to  the  assistant  auditor  of  passenger 
traffic. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  auditor  of  disbursements 
has  district  accountants  and  traveling  time  accountants 
reporting  to  him.  These  accountants  check  up  division 
and  district  offices  in  the  same  way  that  the  traveling 
auditors  check  station  agents.  At  irregular  intervals 
they  chock  these  division  records  of  vouchers  and  pay 
rolls,  the  traveling  time  accountants  confining  their 
check  to  the  pay  rolls  and  the  district  accountants  to 
all  other  expenditures.  The  great  extent  of  the  terri- 
tory covered  by  the  system  probably  explains  the 
necessity  for  this  close  supervision  of  expenditure  by 
the  general  office  of  the  accounting  department. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

MISCEIiliANEOUS   DEPARTMENTS 

Real  Estate  and  Taxes 

The  railroads  are  very  large  owners  of  real  estate 
and  in  consequence  pay  large  sums  in  the  way  of 
taxes  on  account  of  such  ownership.  They  also  rent 
or  lease  much  of  their  property  to  corporations  and  indi- 
viduals having  transportation  connection  with  them,  and 
in  turn  rent  or  lease  real  estate  from  corporations  and 
others  under  some  circumstances.  The  real  estate  and 
tax  agent  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of  all  matters 
pertaining  to  these  subjects.  In  some  instances  there 
are  separate  officials  for  real  estate  and  taxes,  but 
usually  supervision  is  vested  in  one  officer. 

The  real  estate  agent  is  the  custodian  of  all  original 
copies  of  deeds,  releases,  leases,  maps,  and  records 
of  real  estate.  He  prepares  a  descriptive  list  of  all  real 
estate  owned  by,  leased  by,  or  leased  to  his  company. 
He  examines  and  approves  all  deeds,  leases,  and  agree- 
ments relating  to  real  estate  before  they  are  executed 
and  recorded,  and  attends  to  the  actual  recording  of 
such  documents.  Purchases  and  leases  of  all  property 
are  negotiated  by  him.  He  furnishes  other  officers  of 
the  company  abstracts  of  any  real  estate  documents 
required  in  the  conduct  of  their  departments. 

He  prepares  for  each  state  a  separate  list  of  real 
estate  subject  to  taxation.  He  examines  all  assessments 
for  taxation,  special  assessment  taxes,  water  rents,  and 
other  municipal  charges. 

222 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  223 

He  examines  and  certifies  the  correctness  of  all  bills 
against  bis  company  for  purchase  of  real  estate,  all 
taxes  and  other  assessments,  state  or  municipal,  against 
the  property,  rents  for  property  leased  by  the  company, 
interest  on  real  estate  mortgages,  and  all  other  charges 
and  expenses  incurred  on  account  of  real  estate  o^\^led 
or  leased.  He  collects  all  rentals  or  charges  due  his 
company  from  others,  remitting  such  receipts  to  the 
treasury  and  reporting  all  such  transactions  to  the 
comptroller. 

Insurance    Department 

Some  of  the  larger  companies  have  an  insurance 
department  which  is  operated  on  about  the  same  basis 
as  the  ordinary  insurance  company.  The  several  depart- 
ments are  charged  a  percentage  on  such  structures  as 
would  ordinarily  be  insured,  and  the  money  so  obtained 
is  set  aside  to  create  a  fund  from  which  structures 
destroyed  by  fires  may  be  replaced. 

The  larger  the  system  (and  the  greater  the  number 
of  risks),  the  nearer  the  approach  to  the  conditions 
under  which  the  insurance  companies  operate,  which  is 
a  large  number  of  widely  separated  risks.  The  insur- 
ance companies  charge  a  higher  rate  than  the  average 
fire  loss  of  the  territory  in  which  they  operate;  the 
railroad  company's  insurance  department  saves  the 
profit  of  the  insurance  company. 

Where  large  and  costly  structures  are  owned  they  are 
usually  insured  in  outside  companies,  just  as  insurance 
companies  reinsure  such  risks. 

Even  the  larger  systems  cannot  afford  to  do  without 
either  the  insurance  in  regular  companies  or  insurance 
funds  of  their  own,  as  fire  losses  would  cause  violent 
fluctuations  in  expenses  or  even  financial  embarrassment 
in  the  case  of  very  serious  fires. 


L'_!4     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

The  department  usually  provides  for  inspection  and 
instruction  to  prevent  fire  losses,  and  such  structures 
as  shops,  freight  houses,  and  docks,  arc  provided  witli 
fire-fighting  equipment  and  sometimes  wit!)  fire  com- 
panies organized  from  the  company's  own  forces 
engaged  at  or  near  the  particular  structure. 

Testing  Department 

The  testing  of  various  materials  and  railroad  supplier- 
is  assuming  great  importance.  The  Pennsylvania  Rail- 
road has  just  completed  new  laboratories  and  buildings 
for  testing  purposes.  The  organization  and  working 
of  the  department  of  tests  is  given  in  an  article  by 
Mr.  C.  D.  Young,  published  in  the  Railivay  Age  Gazette, 
of  July  2,  1915,  from  which  this  account  is  written. 

The  Pennsylvania  Eailroad  has  found  that  the  quality 
of  the  material  purchased  for  use  in  track,  bridges,  cars, 
and  locomotives  must  be  carefully  scrutinized.  Control 
over  the  quality  of  supplies  is  secured  by  the  aid  of 
specifications,  which  are  based  upon  careful  considera- 
tion of  the  materials  available  for  the  various  uses  of  the 
railway,  and  by  research  work  tending  toward  the 
development  of  new  materials  and  devices,  or  improving 
those  which  are  in  general  use.  An  organization  with 
laboratories  at  a  central  point  is  essential  in  promoting 
the  work  of  thorough  inspection. 

Physical  Laboratory 

Among  the  machines  and  apparatus  that  compose  the 
equipment  of  the  physical  laboratory,  are  the  following: 

Five  universal  tension  and  compression  testing  machines,  one 
of  1,000,000,  two  of  300,000,  two  of  100.000-poimd  capacity. 

One  vibratory  endurance  spring  testing  machine  of  75,000- 
pound  capacity. 

One  4;3-foot  drop-testing  machine. 

Two  vibrating  staybolt  testing  machines. 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  225 

One  Brinell  hardness  testing  machine. 

One  2,000-poiind  cement  testing  machine. 

One  horizontal  microscope,  with  camera  for  metalographic 
work. 

One  grinding,  buffing,  and  etching  outfit  for  the  preparation 
of  samples  for  microscopic  work. 

The  physical  laboratory  is  provided  with  various 
machines  for  making  tension,  compression,  drop,  vibra- 
tory, and  hardness  tests.  There  are  in  addition  engines, 
lathes,  drills,  etc.,  and  special  machines  for  testing  hose, 
I'ubber,  and  other  materials. 

The  materials  for  test  are  samples  which  have  been 
obtained  by  the  inspectors  at  outlying  points  and  those 
sent  to  the  department  by  the  shops.  The  metal  speci- 
mens go  to  the  machine  room  for  preparation,  then  to 
the  physical  laboratory  for  analysis. 

Rubber,  Air  Brake  Hose,  and  Miscellaneous  Laboratory 

The  extent  of  the  work  of  this  department  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  the  needs  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Kailroad  are  about  635,000  pieces  of  air  brake  hose  per 
year. 

Heat  Treatment  Laboratorii 

This  department  is  for  the  development  of  standards 
in  tlie  heat-treatment  of  metals  during  the  process  of 
their  manufacture  for  use  in  railway  equipment.  Inves- 
tigations are  carried  out  to  study  the  effect  of  various 
licat  treatments  on  a  large  variety  of  carbon  and  alloy 
steels. 

Large  castings  of  various  kinds  have  been  heat-treated 
by  this  department  with  the  aid  of  outside  facilities  with 
a  gratifying  degree  of  success.  The  effect  of  chemicals 
and  heat-treatment  upon  the  endurance  of  materials  to 
repeated  stresses  is  tested  out  by  revolution  and  vibra- 


22()     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

lion  tests,  including  vibration  tests  on  complete  springs. 
Rails,  splice  bars,  and  tie  plates  are  heat-treated  to 
study  the  increased  service  it  is  possible  to  secure. 

Insulating  Tests 

Investigations  are  made  on  various  types  of  fireproof 
material  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  a  high  standard. 
The  testing  of  felt  and  insulating  papers  used  for  lining 
refrigerator  cars  has  been  made  necessary  by  the  large 
variety  of  materials  of  this  kind  on  the  market,  the  keen 
competition  among  manufacturers,  and  the  ease  with 
which  the  hignesi  grade  and  best  material  can  be  closely 
imitated  by  cheap  and  inferior  products.  This  labora- 
tory is  equipped  wdth  an  insulated  room  and  electrical 
heating  arrangements  for  this  work,  the  tests  being 
designed  to  represent  as  nearly  as  possible  the  service 
conditions  to  which  these  materials  would  be  subjected. 

Lamp  Tests 

The  equipment  for  lamp  tests  consists  of  three  photo- 
meters, a  lamp-test  rack  of  1,000  lamps  capacity  with 
switchboard,  transformers,  and  potential  regulator 
equipment.  These  lamp  tests  are  made  with  a  view  of 
obtaining  data  for  the  preparation  of  specifications  to 
secure  uniformity  in  the  ordering  of  incandescent  lamps, 
and  the  maintaining  of  sufiiciently  high  standards.  There 
is  a  department  investigating  electrolysis,  electrical 
machines,  batteries,  and  other  electrical  material. 

Laboratory  Work 

A  large  room  is  pro\^ded  for  the  force  of  laboratory 
and  road  assistants  coming  under  the  direction  of  the 
foreman  of  road  tests  and  special  tests.     The  duties  of 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  227 

these  men  are  varied  and  include  tests  of  locomotives 
on  the  road :  tests  of  equipment  with  special  devices ;  the 
tonnage  rating  of  trains;  and  the  following  up  of  all 
experimental  appliances  which  are  put  into  service  for 
test  purposes. 

Metallurgical  Work,  Etc. 

The  main  chemical  laboratory  is  divided  into  two 
departments,  the  larger  one  of  these  being  devoted 
exclusively  to  metallurgical  chemistry. 

The  smaller  of  these  two  laboratories  is  for  work  of 
a  more  general  character,  being  used  for  the  examination 
of  fuels;  the  development  of  specifications  for  paint 
products,  lubricating  and  burning  oils,  boiler  compounds, 
lacquers,  plush,  car  cleaners,  cutting  compounds,  belt 
dressing,  polishing  compounds,  hydraulic-jack  liquids, 
fuses,  track  caps,  fire-extinguishing  preparations;  the 
recovery  of  used  or  wasted  products,  etc. 

Cerjtain  food  products  used  in  the  dining  car  service 
are  also  examined  here  at  times;  many  other  miscel- 
laneous investigations  are  made,  as  of  conditions  which 
may  have  led  to  loss  from  the  damage  to  freight  in 
transit,  to  establish  methods  for  preventing  such  loss. 

Manufacturing  Laboratory 

A  manufacturing  laboratory,  which  might  be  called 
a  small  factory,  is  maintained  in  a  separate  building 
which  is  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  chief 
chemist,  and  new  products  are  manufactured  in  this 
until  such  time  as  it  is  found  advisable  to  purchase  them 
from  "outside"  manufacturers. 

Laboratory  Car 

In  addition  to  the  steel-rail  work  at  Altoona,  a  labora- 
tory car  has  been  built  to  be  moved  as  required  to  any 


228     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

point  where  steel  rails  in  process  of  manufacture  are 
to  be  inspected.  This  car  is  equipped  for  chemical 
analyses  of  the  finished  rails  at  the  mills  by  a  force  of 
chemists  under  the  chief  chemist. 

There  is  also  a  bacteriological  laboratory  for  examin- 
ing water,  which  standardizes  the  disinfectants  to  be 
used  on  the  system.  It  also  examines  boiler  feed  water 
supply  and  formulates  methods  for  water  treatment. 

The  equipment  of  the  testing  plant  includes  a  dyna- 
mometer car,  a  locomotive  testing  plant,  a  brake-shoe 
testing  machine,  and  much  other  testing  machinery. 

Extent  and  Variety  of  Materials  Tested 

The  scope  of  the  work  can  be  better  appreciated  when 
it  is  understood  that  the  cost  of  the  materials  covered 
by  the  inspection  and  tests  and  entering  into  the  con- 
struction of  the  railroad  rolling  stock  and  track,  in  1913, 
amounted  to  $92,119,480,  while  the  cost  of  operating  the 
test  department  and  chemical  laboratory  for  the  same 
year  was  $534,060. 

Publicity 

In  the  last  few  years  the  carriers  have  made  it  a 
policy  to  disseminate  traffic  information.  Much  of  this 
is  done  by  the  American  Railway  Association  thru  its 
various  departments  which  furnish  statistical  and  other 
information.  The  car  sei'^ace  division  of  the  American 
Railway  Association  issue  weekly  statistical  reports 
showing  the  car  loading  and  in  addition  a  chart  compar- 
ing with  previous  years  the  number  of  cars  loaded.  The 
Bureau  of  Railway  Economics  also  provides  monthly 
reports  on  railway  revenues  and  expenses.  The  various 
reports  and  statistics  are  used  in  a  great  many  ways  as 
indices  of  general  business  conditions.  They  are  also 
used  by  the  carriers  to  bring  prominently  before  the 
public  information  of  particular  interest  at  that  time. 

In  regard  to  the  publicity  departments  of  railroads, 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  229 

Interstate  Commerce  Commissioner  Prouty  once  said, 
"It  is  not  only  the  right  but  the  duty  of  the  railways 
to  present  these  matters  (statistical  arguments)  to  the 
public  from  their  vie\\7)oint,  provided  it  is  done  with 
scrupulous  accuracy  in  the  statement  of  facts."  Cer- 
tainly no  fault  can  be  found  with  the  presentation  of 
statistics  as  made  by  the  Bureau,  on  the  ground  of 
inaccuracy,  as  its  figures  check  the  very  complete  sta- 
tistics of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  and  the 
analysis  of  them  is  carried  beyond  the  Commission's 
statistics  as  to  many  features. 

Many  of  the  railroads  maintain  publicity  departments 
of  their  own  to  keep  the  public  advised  of  transportation 
news  of  interest  to  it  and  to  present  their  viewpoint 
on  railroad  matters  being  generally  discussed  by  the 
public.  Often  the  dangers  and  fallacies  in  proposed 
laws,  such  as  the  full-crew  law,  and  the  railway  mail 
pay,  must  be  presented  forcibly  to  the  public  to  enlist  its 
support  in  defeating  them,  and  the  publicity  departments 
of  railroads  are  the  medium  through  which  the  public  is 
reached  in  such  matters. 

Policing 

All  large  systems  maintain  a  force  of  special  agents 
or  police.  The  organization  is  much  the  same  as  any 
other  designed  for  the  protection  of  persons  and  prop- 
erty. 

The  most  common  offenses  for  which  arrests  are 
made  are  train-riding  by  persons  not  paying  fares ;  tres- 
pass on  railroad  right  of  way;  robbery  of  cars  and 
buildings;  petit  larceny,  such  as  removing  car  brasses, 
air  hose,  etc.;  intoxication  and  disorderly  conduct  on 
trains  and  in  passenger  stations ;  and  willful  destruction 
of  railroad  property,  such  as  the  stoning  of  trains  by 
boys  and  malicious  persons. 


230     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

Special  agents  are  usually  appointed  by  and  report  to 
the  general  superintendent.  The  number  employed 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  system  and  local  conditions 
at  large  terminal  freight  houses  and  yards  and  pas- 
senger terminals. 

Car  Accounting,  Car  Distribution,  Fast  Freight 

The  officer  actually  in  charge  of  car  movements  is 
variously  called  superintendent  of  car  service,  car 
accountant,  or  superintendent  of  transportation.  In  some 
instances  the  superintendent  of  transportation  has  an 
assistant  who  is  a  car  accountant,  and  there  are  various 
titles  and  arrangements  for  covering  the  work,  as  showm 
in  preceding  pages. 

Car  Accounting 

The  work  to  bo  performed  by  the  car  accountant  con- 
sists of  keeping  a  record  at  all  times  of  all  the  freight 
cars  on  the  line  of  the  company.  There  are  two  objects 
in  view :  first,  to  advise  the  general  manager  or  superin- 
tendent of  transportation  as  to  the  exact  location  and 
distribution  of  all  the  cars  on  the  company's  lines; 
second,  the  determination  of  the  rental  charges  payable 
by  the  company  for  the  use  of  foreign  equipment  and 
of  the  rentals  due  to  it  from  other  companies.  To 
accomplish  this,  the  record  must  show  the  initials  of  the 
owning  company  and  the  number  of  each  car,  the  time 
when  it  arrives  on  the  tracks  of  the  company,  and  the 
time  at  w^hich  it  leaves  such  tracks.  The  actual  collect- 
ing of  the  information  as  to  car  movement  is  a  work 
involving  much  detail  and  the  employment  of  many 
men,  but  the  principles  involved  are  those  stated  above. 

In  the  earlier  history  of  railroads,  the  rental  for 
the  use  of  cars  was  based  on  the  mileage  of  loaded  cars. 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTiMENTS  231 

In  the  seventies  this  charge  was  li/^  cents  per  mile 
for  loaded  cars,  and  nothing  for  empties;  subsequently 
this  rate  was  on  ordinary  cars  reduced  to  %  cent  and 
finally  to  6  mills  for  all  mileage  both  loaded  and  empty. 
After  1902  the  system  of  a  per  diem  charge  was  adopted ; 
that  is,  a  certain  rate  per  day  for  the  car  while  in  the 
service  of  a  company  other  than  its  owner.  (The  present 
rate  is  45  cents  per  day.)  Rules  providing  in  great 
detail  for  the  accounting  and  for  the  movement  of  the 
cars  when  on  foreign  lines  have  been  adopted,  the  gen- 
eral purpose  of  which  is  to  facilitate  such  accounting 
and  use. 

The  actual  performance  of  the  work  of  accounting 
for  the  cars  is  simple,  involving  the  employment  of  men 
at  all  junctions  and  connections  w4th  other  railroads,  and 
a  report  daily  by  the  station  agents  of  the  home  com- 
pany. These  reports  are  made  at  about  4  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and  are  forwarded  by  wire  through  the  dis- 
patcher to  the  car  accounting  officer. 

Car  Distribution 

During  nonnal  times  and  particularly  when  business  is 
brisk,  the  subject  of  car  distribution  is  a  very  impor- 
tant one  to  the  operating  department.  It  often  hap- 
pens on  a  large  system  that  one  portion  of  the  line  may 
have  a  surplus  of  cars  and  another  a  shortage,  and  it 
requires  much  skill  to  effect  an  economical  distribution 
of  cars  at  all  times. 

The  general  object  is  to  provide  a  car  for  a  shipper 
within  a  reasonable  time  after  it  is  requested.  It  is 
often  not  possible,  nor  would  it  be  always  wise,  to  fur- 
nish cars  to  each  shipper  requesting  them  immediately 
on  receipt  of  his  requisition  therefor.  The  inevitable 
result  in  many  instances  of  such  a  process  would  be  the 
blockading  of  tracks  at  all  important  terminals  in  the 


232     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  iiANAGEiMP:XT 

case  of  such  commodities  as  grain  and  coal,  and  over- 
loading the  handling  and  storage  capacities  of  elevators 
and  other  industrial  plants. 

The  principle  underlying  efficient  car  distribution  is 
the  avoidance  as  far  as  possible  of  empty  car  mileage. 
Car  distribution  is  dependent  on  the  nature  of  the  com- 
modities and  the  geographical  situation  of  the  railroad. 
The  movement  of  such  commodities  as  coal  and  ore  is 
simpler  than  the  movement  of  agricultural  products, 
such  as  wheat,  corn,  and  hay;  distribution  is  less  com- 
plex on  a  system  which  is  made  up  in  large  part  of  main 
line  than  on  one  which  has  a  large  percentage  of  branch 
line  mileage. 

All  cars  for  shipments  should  be  ordered  through  the 
station  agent,  who  reports  such  requests,  together  "svith 
cars  that  are  loading,  or  loaded  at  his  station  ready  for 
shipment,  to  the  dispatcher,  who  in  turn  reports  as  to 
the  whole  division  to  the  superintendent  of  transporta- 
tion, or  other  officer  charged  with  car  distribution. 

Seasonal  demands  for  certain  classes  of  cars  must  be 
anticipated  by  an  accumulation  of  cars  in  advance  of 
actual  use.  The  movement  of  vegetables  from  the  South 
in  the  early  spring  and  of  grain  from  the  West  in  the 
fail  are  instances  of  such  demands.  A  knowledge  of 
crop  and  market  conditions  is  essential  to  the  making 
in  advance  of  an  intelligent  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
equipment  that  will  probably  be  required. 

The  coal  traffic  between  the  mines  and  large  manufac- 
turing centers,  such  as  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Pittsburgh, 
and  Cleveland,  involves  the  use  of  an  inmiense  number 
of  cars.  It  is  not  possible  to  detemiine,  even  a  few 
hours  in  advance,  the  number  of  coal  cars  that  will  be 
released  at  one  of  these  large  centers  at  the  end  of 
the  day,  and  a  fair  distribution  of  cars  among  mines, 
many  on  isolated  branch  lines,  is  difficult. 

The  nature  and  direction  of  traffic  must  also  be  con- 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  233 

sidered.  While  lumber,  heavy  machinery,  etc.  may 
be  more  conveniently  loaded  on  flat  cars,  if  the  shipment 
is  destined  to  a  section  Avhose  return  shipments  are 
largely  grain  or  other  agricultural  products,  it  is  well, 
if  possible,  to  ship  the  lumber  or  machinery  in  box 
cars  rather  than  flat  cars  to  avoid  the  empty  mileage 
of  the  flat  cars  returning.  It  would  evidently  be  uneco- 
nomical to  furnish  an  80,000-pound  car  on  a  request  for 
a  shipment  of  20,000  pounds  of  merchandise,  and  equally 
so  if  small  capacity  cars  Avere  supplied  for  a  shipment 
of  a  large  amount  of  grain,  aggregating  several  or  manj'- 
carloads,  which  should  move  in  80,000-pound  grain  cars. 
Such  matters,  while  seemingly  simple,  require  most 
careful  supervision  and  regulation,  which  the  superin- 
tendent of  transportation  or  a  similar  officer  supplies. 


Fast-Freight  Movement 

There  are  three  main  divisions  of  freight  traffic  which 
affect  the  operating  department:  fast  freight,  time 
freight,  and  ordinary  freight. 

Perishable  goods,  such  as  fresh  meats,  dairy  products, 
tropical  fruits,  vegetables,  poultry,  and  certain  merchan- 
dise, are  fast-freight  commodities;  high-class  merchan- 
dise, such  as  sugar,  coffee,  canned  goods,  machinery, 
etc.,  are  time  freight;  lumber,  coal,  ore,  sand,  stone,  and 
such  commodities  are  ordinary  freight.  Agents  are 
supplied  with  instructions  as  to  the  classification  of  each 
commodity  and  they  way-bill  shipments  in  accordance 
therewith.  Way-bills  for  fast  freight  should  be  of  a 
distinctive  color. 

The  cars  carrying  fast  freight  are  usually  designated 
by  a  small  card  attached  by  the  yard  clerk  so  that  they 
may  be  readily  distinguished  and  given  preference. 
These  distinguishing  way-bills  and  cards  give  such  cars 


234    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

individual  identity  and  facilitate  their  prompt  movement 
and  easy  tracing. 

Fast  freight  is  moved  in  trains  scheduled  frequently 
at  over  twenty  miles  per  hour;  time  freight  in  trains 
scheduled  at  from  twelve  to  fifteen  miles  per  hour.  In 
case  a  fast  or  time  freight  car  is  set  out  for  any  reason, 
its  way-bill  must  be  left  at  the  station  with  the  car. 
If  the  agent  should  overlook  the  character  of  the  car, 
the  switchman  will  hardly  do  so  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tinguishing color  of  the  card  attached  to  the  car.  At  the 
end  of  a  division,  should  the  yard  master  overlook  such 
a  car  in  making  up  his  train,  the  yard  clerk  in  giving 
conductors  their  way-bills  will  notice  the  special  way- 
bills on  account  of  their  color  and  thus  check  the  yard- 
master. 

On  interline  shipments  the  yard  clerk  of  the  home 
line  furnishes  his  superintendent  of  transportation  ^nth 
the  way-bill  numbers  of  all  cars  turned  over  to  each 
connecting  line.  The  yard  clerks  of  the  foreign  road 
will  telegraph  the  superintendent  of  transportation  of 
the  home  road,  giving  the  time  of  arrival  and  departure 
at  division  points  of  all  trains  carrying  fast-freight 
cars  together  with  the  home  road's  way-bill  numbers, 
so  that  the  superintendent  of  transportation  is  advised 
at  all  times  of  the  location  of  such  freight. 

In  case  any  fast  freight  car  is  set  out  between  division 
points  for  any  reason,  he  is  also  advised  by  ^vire  by 
the  conductor  of  the  train;  should  the  conductor  fail  to 
advise  him,  the  report  of  the  division  yard  clerk  next 
beyond  will  disclose  the  fact.  In  such  instances  the 
superintendent  of  transportation  wires  the  trainmaster 
of  the  particular  division  on  the  foreign  road  to  have 
the  car  repaired  and  got  to  the  next  division  point  in  a 
slow  train,  where  it  is  picked  up  by  the  next  scheduled 
fast-freight  train.     This  system  of  foreign  line  tracing 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS      "^vy 

also  affords  a  check  on  the  running  time  of  fast-freignt 
trains  on  foreign  lines. 

Education 

Some  of  the  railroads  have  realized  the  importance 
of  educating  their  younger  employees  for  better  positions 
in  various  departments.  The  education  of  apprentices 
in  the  mechanical  department  has  been  undertaken  by 
reveral  of  the  large  systems.  A  description^  of  the 
s;*'stem  employed  on  the  Illinois  Central  and  Central  of 
Georgia  Railways  will  serve  to  show  the  character  of 
instruction  given. 

1  here  are  daily  thirty-minute  sessions  beginning  at 
7:0)  a.  m.,  which  allows  ten  classes  each  morning.  This 
large  number  of  classes  reduces  the  apprentices  in  each 
class  to  such  small  numbers  that  the  instruction  is 
practically  individual. 

No  mechanical  drawing  is  taught  in  the  apprentice 
schools  during  the  first  year  and  a  half  to  two  years. 
It  is  the  aim  to  make  shopmen,  not  draftsmen.  The 
apprentice  boy  needs  to  learn  to  read  working  drawings 
and  to  make  a  shop  sketch  quickly  and  accurately,  but 
lie  need  not  leani  mechanical  drawing  to  accomplish 
this.  The  first  work  consists  of  eighty-five  half-hour 
lessons  on  reading  working  drawings,  the  thirty-sixth 
lesson  being  an  actual  shop  blueprint.  These  lessons 
are  given  on  alternate  days,  or  three  times  a  week,  and 
are  followed  by  shop  sketching  lessons,  of  which  there 
are  sixty.  At  the  end  of  the  one-hundred-forty-fifth 
lesson  the  apprentice  can  read  any  shop  drawing  and 
make  any  shop  sketch  necessary. 

Following  these  two  subjects  is  shop  practice,  varied 
according  to  the  different  trades  apprentices  are  learn- 


'  Abstracted  from  an  article  in  the  Railway  Aqe  Gazette,   Mechanical 
Edition,  LXXXVII  249. 


236    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

iiig.  The  alternate  days  not  given  to  the  course  of 
lessons  first  described  are  assigned  to  the  study  of 
arithmetic  and  general  mechanical  subjects.  The  first 
year's  lessons  are  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication, 
and  division.  These  lessons  are  continued  through 
decimals,  square  root,  cube  root,  geometry,  and  trigo- 
nometry. The  last  half  of  the  last  year  the  apprentice 
may  take  mechanical  drawing  if  he  desires.  Tho 
apprentice  period  is  usually  three  to  four  years. 

The  classroom  work  and  shop  instruction  are  not  con- 
nected with  each  other,  the  one  being  controlled  by  the 
educational  bureau  and  the  other  by  the  mechanical 
department  officials. 

Since  first  inaugurated  on  the  systems  named,  the 
educational  bureau  has  enlarged  its  scope  and  offers  its 
services  to  employees  of  all  roads,  a  fee  of  $1.00  per 
month  being  charged  each  employee  for  the  service.  Its 
work  has  been  extended  to  many  roads  in  the  Southwest 
and  in  the  Central  States. 

The  bureau  offers  courses  in  the  following  subjects: 
Air  brake,  locomotive,  mechanical  drawing,  machine 
design,  mechanical  engineering,  gas  engine,  shop  prac- 
tice, tool  making,  pipe  fitting,  plumbing,  railroad 
operation,  block  signals,  interlocking,  station  work, 
refrigeration,  traffic,  track  work,  concrete,  surveying, 
mapping,  mathematics,  electrical  engineering,  sheet  metal 
patterns,  drafting,  and  boiler  layout  work. 

Various  roads  have  methods  for  instructing  employees 
of  the  various  departments.  Nearly  all  railroads  have 
cars  fitted  up  to  demonstrate  the  construction  and  proper 
use  of  air  brakes,  the  cars  traveling  over  the  entire  sys- 
tem constantly  to  instruct  all  trainmen  in  their  proper 
use.  The  Northern  Pacific  has  a  traveling  fuel  car  which 
travels  over  the  system,  teaching  firemen  the  theory  of 
combustion  and  the  application  of  it  to  practical  opera- 
tion.    The  Pennsylvania   provides  lectures,   apparatus, 


MISCRLLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  287 

and  models  for  iiistnictin^j-  its  employees  at  various 
points  on  the  system  on  the  followino^  subjects:  air 
brakes,  steam  heating,  valve  motion,  lubrication, 
injectors,  signals  and  switches,  locomotive  firing,  and 
first  aid  to  injured. 

Some  of  the  railroads  are  beginning  to  realize  that 
traffic  employees  and  station  agents  and  clerks  must 
be  trained  in  traffic  matters  to  avoid  the  very  consider- 
able losses  which  are  incurred  in  railroad  operation 
through  lack  of  proper  interpretation  of  tariffs  by  rail- 
road employees.  Tariffs,  classifications,  rules  and  regu- 
lations, exceptions  and  other  matters  have  become  so 
complicated  to  the  uninstructed  that  special  training 
is  required  along  those  lines  and  is  as  necessary  in 
the  traffic  as  in  the  mechanical  or  operating  depart- 
ments. 

Relief 

In  most  of  the  brotherhoods  of  railway  employees, 
insurance  is  compulsory,  being  a  condition  of  member- 
ship. The  officers  of  the  national  organization  manage 
the  funds  contributed  by  members  and  are  subject  to 
the  control  of  the  annual  convention  of  the  members. 

The  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers  in  1914 
had  in  force  insurance  to  the  aggregate  amount  of 
$150,000,000.  Since  1867  it  has  disbursed  $30,000,000  in 
death  and  disability  claims.  In  May  1915  the  Brother- 
hood of  Firemen  had  an  aggregate  insurance  fund  of 
$4,133,135,  and  during  the  year  ended  June  1,  1915,  has 
disbursed  $980,000  from  its  funds  for  death  and  dis- 
ability benefits. 

Some  of  tlie  railroads  have  organized  relief  depart- 
ments in  which  all  employees  may  participate.  The 
funds  are  managed  usually  by  an  advisory  connnittee 
appointed  jointly  by  tlie  directors  of  the  railroad  com- 


238    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

pany  and  the  several  classes  of  employees.  There  are 
generally  several  classes  of  membership  based  on  the 
monthly  earnings  of  the  employee. 

On  the  Atlantic  Coast  Line  there  are  five  classes  of 
members  paying  monthly  from  $0.75  to  $3.75,  for  which 
they  receive  the  following  benefits: 

Accident  benefits — Free  surgical  attendance  and  pay- 
ments ranging  from  $0.50  to  $2.50  daily  for  a  period  of 
one  year,  and  one-half  these  amounts  for  periods  greater 
than  one  year. 

Sick  benefits — At  the  same  rates  as  for  accidents. 

Death  benefits — Ranging  from  $2.50  to  $1250. 

Pensions 

The  first  railroad  pension  department  was  established 
by  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  in  1889.  Since  that  time  many 
of  the  large  systems  have  inaugurated  some  kind  of  pen- 
sion department.  A  description  of  that  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad,  abstracted  from  a  general  notice  issued 
by  Mr.  A.  J.  Cassatt,  president  in  1899,  will  serve  to  show 
the  general  plan  of  railroad  pension  departments. 

1.  All  officers  and  employees  of  the  company,  giving 
their  entire  time  to  its  service,  who  have  attained  the 
age  of  seventy  years ;  or  who,  being  between  the  ages  of 
65  and  69  years,  shall  have  been  30  years  or  more  in 
company's  service  and  shall  then  be  physically  disquali- 
fied, shall  be  relieved  and  placed  on  the  pension  roll. 

2.  Subject  to  ratable  reduction,  so  that  the  entire 
pension  expenditure  shall  not  exceed  the  sum  of  $300,000 
annually,  pensions  shall  be  allowed  on  the  following 
basis : 

3.  For  each  year  of  service  one  per  cent  of  the  aver- 
age regular  monthly  pay  for  the  ten  years  preceding 
retirement.  To  illustrate:  An  employee  in  the  service 
forty  years  receiving  an  average  monthly  wage  of  $40 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  239 

for  the  last  ten  years  would  receive  a  pension  allowance 
of  forty  per  cent  of  $40  or  $16  per  month. 

4.  Pension  allowances  are  paid  monthly  and  ter- 
minate on  the  death  of  the  employee. 

5.  No  pension  allowance  is  paid  during  the  period 
when  the  employee  is  receiving  benefits  from  the  relief 
department. 

6.  Acceptance  of  pension  shall  not  debar  employee 
from  engaging  in  other  business,  but  such  a  person 
cannot  re-enter  the  company's  service. 

7.  The  pension  department  is  under  the  supendsion 
of  a  vice  president,  the  general  manager,  and  the 
assistant  comptroller  of  the  company.  The  board  of 
directors  may  appoint  members  of  such  pension  board  at 
any  annual  meeting. 

No  person  over  thirty-five  years  of  age  is  taken  into 
the  service  of  the  company  except  that  with  the  approval 
of  the  board  of  directors  (1)  former  employees  may  be 
re-employed  within  a  period  of  three  years  from  the 
time  of  their  leaving  company  service;  (2)  persons  may 
be  employed,  irrespective  of  age,  where  service  for 
which  they  are  needed  requires  professional  or  other 
special  qualifications;  (3)  persons  may  be  employed 
temporarily  for  a  period  not  exceeding  six  months,  sub- 
ject to  extension  when  necessary  to  complete  the  work 
for  which  they  are  engaged. 

Purchasing  Department 

The  duty  of  the  purchasing  department  is  to  supply 
material  required  by  various  departments  in  such  quan- 
tity and  of  such  quality  as  they  specify  and  to  do  it 
in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  at  the  least  cost. 

There  are  many  advantages  to  be  gained  in  concen- 
trating purchasing  power  in  one  department.  Having 
general  advance  information  of  the  requirements  of  all 


240     RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

departments  for  the  year,  it  may  order  many  classes  of 
material  in  large  quantities  and  in  consequence  obtain 
them  at  lower  prices.  Uniform  specifications,  for  many 
general  classes  of  material,  facilitate  inspection  and  so 
improve  the  quality  of  material.  Further,  the  records 
of  the  department  soon  afford  the  means  for  establish- 
ing cost  data,  which  is  very  essential  in  forming  a  judg- 
ment as  to  the  fairness  of  prices  asked  on  similar 
material. 

Usually  rail  and  equipment  purchases  are  not  made 
by  the  purchasing  department,  the  executive  department 
attending  to  such  large  matters. 

The  purchasing  agent  is  usually  assisted  by  a  fuel 
agent,  a  tie-inspector,  a  stationer,  and  a  general  store- 
keeper. 

The  cost  of  fuel  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
single  item  of  railroad  expense.  The  fuel  agent  super- 
vises the  inspection,  loading,  and  shipping,  and  in  a 
general  way  the  accounting  for  fuel  purchased,  and  is 
advised  generally  as  to  conditions  of  the  fuel  market. 

The  tie-inspectors  inspect  all  ties  delivered  and 
classify  them  under  the  specifications  as  first-class,  sec- 
ond-class, or  culls.  All  large  purchases  of  lumber  are 
inspected  and  classified. 

The  stationery-store  stock  is  a  supply  of  all  the 
numerous  blank  forms,  stationery,  and  other  office  sup- 
plies. It  is  in  charge  of  the  stationer,  who  issues  it  on 
monthly  requisitions  from  the  various  departments  and 
from  general  division  and  agents'  offices.  The  requisi- 
tions from  the  last  named  are  usually  supervised  by  the 
traveling  auditors. 

The  stores  department  is  under  the  direct  supervision 
of  the  general  storekeeper,  and  the  records  of  all 
material  purchased  for  it  are  kept  by  him.  ^Vhile  much 
of  the  material  purchased  is  not  delivered  to  the  store- 


MISCELLANEOUS  DEPARTMENTS  241 

house,  being"  shipped  direct  to  point  of  use  on  the  line, 
the  storekeeper  keeps  a  record  of  all  of  it. 

Such  material  as  lumber  and  hardware  must  be  kept 
on  hand  at  all  times  to  be  issued  to  various  departments, 
usually  in  small  amounts,  on  properly  approved  requisi- 
tions. This  stock  is  replenished  from  time  to  time  by 
the  purchasing  agent  on  requisition  from  the  store- 
keeper. The  general  aim  in  the  stores  department  is  to 
have  as  little  money  tied  up  in  stock  as  possible  without 
embarrassing  the  departments  requiring  it  by  undue 
delays  in  filling  requisitions.  This  supervision,  especially 
on  large  lines,  is  very  important  on  account  of  the  large 
amount  of  material  and  supplies  required  to  be  kept 
on  hand.  On  the  Santa  Fe  System  this  item  was  on 
June  30,  1915,  $15,870,460.48. 

Semi-annual  inventories  of  stock  are  taken  as  a  check 
on  the  record  of  purchases  and  requisitions  with  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  disposition  of  all  purchases  and 
the  proper  division  of  cost  to  each  department. 

The  department  is  also  charged  with  the  sale  of  old 
material  unsuitable  for  railroad  use,  such  as  scrap  iron, 
steel,  rubber,  and  old  equipment  which  through  obso- 
lesence  or  age  can  no  longer  be  economically  used. 

The  head  of  the  department  of  purchases  and  stores 
is  one  of  the  three  vice  presidents  reporting  to  the 
president  and  has  an  assistant.  The  purchasing  and 
stores  divisions  are  sharply  distinguished,  the  former 
being  in  charge  of  a  general  purcliasing  agent  and  the 
latter  under  a  general  storekeeper.  There  are  two 
assistant  purchasing  agents  on  lines  East  of  Albuquer- 
que, two  purchasing  agents  on  the  Coast  Lines,  and  a 
coal-inspector  and  tie-inspector  in  the  purchasing  depart- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS 

Having  shown  the  organization  and  activities  of  the 
respective  departments  of  various  railroads,  we  may 
now  consider  them  collectively,  and  for  this  purpose  a 
small  line,  the  Manistee  &  Northeastern  Railroad,  and 
a  large  system,  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Rail- 
way, have  been  selected. 

All  systems  of  railroad  have  been  created  through 
the  combination  of  small  individual  local  roads,  most  of 
which,  from  financial  necessity,  were  built  a  few  miles 
at  a  time.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  these  original 
small  roads  have  been  consolidated  into  small  systems 
by  purchase,  stock  control,  or  lease  and  the  small  sys- 
tems in  turn  into  large  systems. 

Manistee  &  NoRTHEASTEKisr  Ratleoad 

For  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  organization  of  a 
small  railroad  the  Manistee  &  Northeastern  Railroad 
has  been  selected.  This  line  is  an  excellent  example  of 
a  small,  independent,  well-managed  railroad,  in  which 
the  supervision  of  more  than  one  department  is  in  the 
hands  of  one  official.  Such  officials  must  be  ''all- 
around"  railroad  men,  rather  than  specialists,  but  it 
will  generally  be  found  that  there  is  one  department 
which  particularly  engages  their  attention,  the  direct 
supervision  of  a  portion  or  all  of  a  department  of  less 
importance  being  delegated  to  an  assistant. 

The   fact   that,   with   average   gross    rarnings    (in   a 

242 


EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS       243 

period  of  five  years)  of  about  $3,000  per  mile,  it  has 
been  able  to  pay  all  expenses  and  add  to  its  surplus 
practically  $180,000  during  a  period  of  business  depres- 
sion speaks  well  for  its  organization  and  management. 

This  railroad  has  a  main  line  seventy-one  miles  long 
extending  from  the  port  of  Manistee  on  Lake  Michigan 
to  Traverse  City  on  Grand  Traverse  Bay  in  Northern 
Michigan;  a  branch  seventy-nine  miles  long  from  the 
main  line  to  Grayling;  one  of  fifteen  miles  to  Provemont; 
and  one  of  seventeen  miles  to  Empire  Junction. 

The  ''property  operated"  statement  covering  this 
feature  is  as  follows: 

Miles       Miles       Miles 

Main   line    70.76 

Branches    111.80 

Sidings  and  spurs 

Total  trackage  owned 

Leased  lines   

Lines  operated  under  contract    

Total  mileage  operated 

Total  main  line  and  branches 
operated 


182.56 

52.89 

235.45 

1.26 

6.00 

242.71 

189.82 

Its  equipment  consists  of  sixteen  locomotives  (of  loco- 
motives weighing  more  than  forty  tons);  nine  coaches; 
five  combination  cars;  two  baggage,  mail,  and  express 
cars;  748  freight  cars  (of  which  forty-two  are  re- 
frigerator cars) ;  two  snow  plows;  one  steam  shovel;  two 
boarding  cars. 

It  connects  with  the  Michigan  Central  Railroad,  Pero 
Marquette  Railroad,  Grand  Rapids  &  Indiana  Railway, 
Ann  Arbor  Railroad,  and  three  small  branch  roads,  and 
with  lake  steamers  at  Manistee. 

Its  operating  ratio  in  1914  was  about  seventy-six  per 
cent,  and  in  1915  eighty-two  per  cent.    The  average  for 


244    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

twenty  years  has  been  67.5  per  cent.  Abnormal  condi- 
tions in  market  prices  of  fruit,  potatoes,  and  lumber, 
the  carrying  of  which  commodities  furnishes  an  im- 
portant part  of  its  revenue,  explains  the  decrease  in  net 
earnings.  Its  funded  debt  (interest-bearing  securities) 
is  $1,291,000  and  its  capital  stock  $2,000,000. 

Operation 

The  cost  of  maintenance  of  way  in  1915  was  $354  per 
mile  of  line  operated.  The  cost  of  maintenance  of 
equipment  was  (average)  per  locomotive,  $1,800;  per 
passenger  car,  $320;  per  freight  car,  $70. 

Its  passenger  earnings  per  mile  of  road  were  $519; 
per  train  mile,  $0.60;  its  freight  earnings  per  mile  of 
road  were  $1,900;  per  train  mile,  $2.07. 

The  organization  of  the  road  is  shown  in  Figure  28. 

The  general  manager,  who  is  also  vice  president, 
reports  to  the  president  and  board  of  directors.  Report- 
ing to  him  are  the  general  superintendent,  superin- 
tendent, chief  engineer,  traffic  manager,  and  auditor. 

The  general  superintendent  is  also  purchasing  agent, 
and  has  charge  of  the  shops,  station  agents,  and  dis- 
patching service.  The  superintendent  of  motive  power, 
dispatcher,  and  station  agents  report  to  him.  His 
duties,  therefore,  are  supervision  of  maintenance  of 
equipment  and  purchasing,  with  a  part  of  the  trans- 
portation. 

The  superintendent  has  charge  of  all  train  movements 
and  the  maintenance  of  the  roadway,  having  a  road- 
master  to  assist  him  by  direct  super\dsion  of  the  track 
forces.  His  supervision  is  therefore  over  a  portion  of 
transportation  and  a  large  part  of  maintenance  of  way. 

The  chief  engineer  has  charge  of  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  all  new  work,  the  maintenance  of  all  bridge 
structures,  and  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  right  of  way 


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EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS       245 


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246    KAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

and  other  lands  of  the  company.  His  supervision  is  of 
construction,  real  estate,  and  a  portion  of  maintenance 
of  way. 

The  traffic  manager,  who  is  also  the  secretary  and 
second  vice  president,  has  supervision  of  all  traffic  mat- 
ters, having  a  general  freight  and  passenger  agent  in 
direct  charge  of  traffic  matters.  His  duties,  therefore, 
relate  both  to  the  traffic  and  the  executive  departments. 

The  auditor,  who  is  also  assistant  secretary''  and 
assistant  treasurer,  has  full  charge  of  the  accounting, 
with  a  car  accountant  reporting  to  him,  being  in  conse- 
quence an  accounting  and  operating  official. 

All  these  officers  are  located  at  the  company's  head- 
quarters in  Manistee,  Mich.  The  general  counsel, 
retained  to  look  after  the  legal  affairs  of  the  company, 
is  located  at  Grand  Eapids. 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  System 

This  system  has  a  total  mileage  of  11,136.43  miles 
and  extends  from  Chicago  through  Kansas  City  to  San 
Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  and  San  Diego  on  the  Pacific 
Coast,  Galveston  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  El  Paso  on  the 
Rio  Grande,  and  Denver  in  the  Eocky  Mountains,  reach- 
ing practically  every  city  of  importance  in  the  South- 
west. It  has  important  systems  of  lines  in  Texas, 
Arizona,  and  New  Mexico,  and  many  branches  in 
Nebraska,  Kansas,  Colorado,  and  Oklahoma. 

Its  total  capitalization  for  11,022.35  miles  of  its  sys- 
tem June  30,  1915,  was  $625,000,000  in  round  numbers, 
or  at  the  rate  of  $57,000  per  mile,  divided  about  evenly 
between  funded  debt  and  stock,  the  stock  being  owned 
by  more  than  43,000  shareholders.  Its  gross  revenue 
per  mile  was  $10,856.32  and  its  net  income  $3,321.47. 
The  operating  ratio  was  64.67  per  cent.  Its  di\ddend 
rate  on  common  stock  for  the  past  years  has  been  6  per 


EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS       247 

cent  annually.  It  underwent  a  drastic  reorganization 
in  1896,  which  in  connection  with  its  excellent  admin- 
istration since,  accounts  for  its  healthful  financial  condi- 
tion. Its  organization  is  therefore  an  interesting  study, 
as  the  dividend  available  after  all  fixed  charges  and 
earnings  have  been  paid  is  the  final  test  of  any 
organization. 

The  organization  chart  is  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe  Railway  Company  only  and  does  not  include 
the  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe  Eailway  and  other  lines 
in  Texas  which  are  a  part  of  the  parent  system. 

The  chairman  of  the  executive  committee,  located  in 
New  York,  is  also  general  counsel,  and  he  and  the  presi- 
dent, located  in  Chicago,  report  directly  to  the  executive 
committee.  The  president  has  an  assistant  in  Chicago 
and  one  in  San  Francisco. 


Financial 

The  comptroller  reports  to  the  president.  He  is  located 
in  New  Y^ork  and  is  the  financial  representative  of  the 
company  in  the  East.  He  attends  to  the  disbursement  of 
interest  on  bonds  and  other  obligations  and  dividends 
on  stock,  and  also  supervises  the  transfer  of  stock  in 
New  York.  He  receives  money  from  the  treasurer  at 
Topeka  and  the  assistant  treasurer  at  Los  Angeles, 
but  those  officers  do  not  report  to  him  in  other  matters. 
He  attends  also  to  the  deliveiy  of  securities.  He  is  not 
connected  with  the  accounting  department  in  any  way, 
the  head  of  that  department,  the  general  auditor,  report- 
ing to  the  president  direct.  He  is  assisted  in  tlie  duties 
mentioned  by  a  deputy  comptroller,  who  acts  for  him  in 
his  absence;  an  assistant  secretary  who  attends  to  the 
transfers  of  stock  and  other  secretarial  duties;  and 
an  assistant  treasurer  in  the  receiving  and  banking  of 


248    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

remittances  from  the  treasurer  and  western  assistant 
treasurer. 

The  secretary  and  treasurer  is  located  at  Topeka, 
Kan.,  with  an  assistant  treasurer,  two  cashiers,  a  pay- 
master, and  an  assistant  paymaster  on  his  staff.  He 
receives  the  remittances  of  station  agents  and  other 
revenue-collecting  employees  and  the  payments  for  bills 
and  settlements  arising  from  the  operation  of  the  Atch- 
ison, Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Eailway  east  of  Albuquerque 
and  is  paymaster  for  that  portion  of  the  system.  He 
reports  to  the  president. 

The  western  assistant  secretary  and  treasurer  located 
at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  with  a  cashier  and  paymaster 
assisting,  performs  the  same  functions  for  the  Coast 
Line^,  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  west  of 
Albuquerque.  This  western  assistant  and  the  treasurer 
report  to  the  president  direct. 

It  will  be  noted  that  this  financial  organization  avoids 
much  of  the  usual  circumlocution;  the  several  officers, 
located  in  mdely  separated  centers,  report  to  the  presi- 
dent direct.  All  large  systems  must  have  a  responsible 
financial  representative,  with  some  diplomatic  ability,  in 
close  touch  at  all  times  with  the  large  banking  interests, 
in  New  York,  and  the  comptroller  fulfills  this  require- 
ment. The  detail  financial  work  of  the  treasury  depart- 
ment requires  that  the  headquarters  organization  be 
located  close  to  the  center  of  operation.  The  distance 
between  the  eastern  and  western  termini  of  the  system 
is  so  great  that  close  supervision  may  not  be  had  with 
one  organization.  In  consequence  the  treasurer  is  located 
at  about  the  center  of  the  Lines  East  of  Albuquerque, 
and  the  western  assistant  treasurer,  who  is  in  effect 
treasurer  of  the  Coast  Lines,  is  located  as  nearly  as 
practicable  at  the  center  of  operations  west  of  Albuquer- 
que. The  secretary  at  Topeka  with  assistants  at  both 
the  western  termini  of  the  system  and  New  Y^'ork  pro- 


EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS       249 

vides  a  means  for  attending  to  secretarial  matters  with- 
out delay. 

Legal 

The  general  and  assistant  general  solicitors  are  located 
in  Chicago.  Reporting  to  the  assistant  general  solicitor 
are  the  western  solicitor,  the  general  attorney  located 
in  Chicago,  and  the  general  claim  agent  located  in 
Topcka,  Kan.  Three  attorneys  in  Chicago,  one  attorney 
for  the  Coast  Lines,  and  seven  state  solicitors  report  on 
various  matters  to  the  assistant  solicitor,  the  western 
solicitor,  and  the  general  attorney.  The  state  solicitors 
have  assistant  solicitors  and  attorneys  and  local  attor- 
neys, with  a  special  counsel  for  Kansas  reporting  to 
them. 

That  is,  there  is  a  general  headquarters  staff  in  the 
legal  department  at  Chicago  with  an  attorney  on  the 
Coast  Lines  in  special  charge  of  matters  pertaining  to 
it,  and  a  solicitor  in  each  state  with  assistants,  attorneys, 
and  local  attorneys  at  county  seats,  reporting  to  them. 

The  general  claim  agent,  with  an  assistant  and  claim 
adjusters,  is  located  at  Topeka,  and  a  claim  agent,  with 
assistant  and  adjusters,  is  located  at  Los  Angeles,  the 
Topeka  organization  attending  to  claims  on  the  Lines 
East  of  Albuquerque  and  the  Los  Angeles  organization 
to  those  on  the  Lines  West  of  Albuquerque. 

These  organizations  adjust  both  personal  injury  and 
loss  and  damage  claims,  the  overcharge  claims  being 
cared  for  by  the  accounting  department. 

Operating   and   Construction 

The  vice  president  in  charge  of  operation  is  also  in 
charge  of  all  construction.  The  organization  of  the 
operating  department  has  already  been  described  in 
the  chapter  on  operation  and  will  not  be  treated  here. 
It  is  unusual  to  find  one  vice  president  in  charge  of  two 


250    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

departments  of  a  railroad  involving  such  large  respon- 
sibilities as  supervision  of  operation  and  construction, 
the  first  being  considered  a  large  enough  task  for  almost 
any  one  man.  That  such  combination  of  supervision  is 
made  at  times  serves  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  the  per- 
sonalities of  officers,  their  previous  training,  and  the 
exigencies  of  the  service  have  a  marked  effect  in  all 
large  organizations. 

The  present  vice  president  in  charge  of  both  depart- 
ments was  formerly  the  vice  president  in  charge  of 
construction  when  the  system  was  pursuing  a  policy 
of  extensive  improvements,  betterments,  reconstruction, 
and  extension  of  lines  and  facilities.  Much  of  this  work 
was  completed  when  a  vacancy  at  the  head  of  the  oper- 
ating department  promoted  him  to  that  position  and 
his  previous  connection  with  construction  matters,  and 
the  decreased  work  in  connection  therewith,  suggested 
the  adding  of  general  supervision  of  his  former  work 
to  his  new  duties. 

Traffic  and  Purchasing 

This  organization  has  been  already  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  the  traffic  department.  It  is  to  be  noted  from 
the  diagram  that  the  management  of  mail  traffic  is  under 
the  supervision  of  a  manager  reporting  direct  to  the  vice 
president  in  charge  of  traffic  instead  of  being  handled 
by  the  general  baggage  agent,  which  is  the  arrangement 
generally  followed  by  western  roads. 

The  purchasing  department  organization  is  discussed 
in  the  description  of  that  department  in  the  Miscel- 
laneous chapter. 

Accounting 

The  general  auditor  reports  direct  to  the  president 
and  not  through  the  comptroller  as  he  does  in  most 


EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS       251 

organizations.  There  are  four  auditors  and  one  travel- 
ing accountant  reporting  to  birn.  For  the  Lines  East 
of  Albuquerque  there  are  an  auditor  of  disbursements 
with  ten  traveling  accountants,  a  freight  auditor  with 
thirteen  traveling  auditors,  and  a  ticket  auditor  (pas- 
senger traffic)  with  an  assistant.  The  auditor  of  the 
Coast  Lines — West  of  Albuquerque — audits  disburse- 
ments as  well  as  freight  and  passenger  accounts,  hav- 
ing an  assistant,  four  traveling  accountants,  and  four 
traveling  auditors  on  his  staff. 


Miscellaneous 

The  land  commissioner  has  charge  of  land  grant  real 
estate,  all  of  which  is  located  west  of  Albuquerque.  The 
work  involved  is  the  selling  and  leasing  and  protecting 
the  property  against  trespass.  Such  work  necessitates 
the  making  of  deeds,  leases,  and  agreements  and  the 
collection  of  rentals  due  under  such  leases.  This  com- 
missioner reports  direct  to  the  president. 

The  statistician  reports  to  the  president  and  is  a 
very  important  officer  on  this  system.  The  statistics 
are  not  compiled  in  the  usual  way,  but  they  are  inter- 
preted and  arranged  for  practical  commercial  purposes. 
Statistics  are  compiled  for  the  operating  and  traffic 
departments  for  the  purpose  of  saving  money  in  the 
operating  and  making  money  (increasing  revenue)  in 
the  traffic. 

The  traffic  statistics  have  especial  consideration.  On 
this  road  these  abstracts  (agents'  abstracts  of  way- 
bills) are,  by  the  carbon  process,  made  in  duplicate  and 
a  copy  is  sent  by  every  agent  to  the  statistical  depart- 
ment, thereby  giving  to  it  the  record  of  all  traffic  move- 
ments.    In   this   department   is   prepared,   from    these 


252    RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

abstracts,  what  is  known  as  a  ''monthly  commodity 
unit,"  which  represents  in  a  single  item  the  movement 
of  every  separate  commodity  between  any  two  stations 
on  the  line,  showing  origin,  destination,  weight,  ton  miles, 
and  earnings.  The  abstracts  are  then  filed  in  calendar 
order  by  stations,  tlie  monthly  units,  after  being  aggre- 
gated in  certain  general  w^ays,  being  filed  by  commodi- 
ties. We  thus  not  only  have  at  hand  in  statistical  form 
the  information  ordinarily  wanted,  but  are  prepared  to 
furnish  almost  immediately  upon  call  any  information 
that  may  be  desired. 

A  complete  record  of  the  performance,  expenses,  and 
repairs  of  each  individual  locomotive  is  also  kept  in 
this  department,  by  which  the  relative  cost  per  ton 
hauled  of  each  locomotive  or  class  of  locomotives  can 
be  ascertained.  A  record  is  also  kept  of  tonnage  hauled 
by  trains  on  each  train  district  as  well  as  the  tonnage 
loading  by  individual  cars  at  all  stations. 

These  statistics  are  used  by  the  traffic  department  in 
the  practical  solution  of  many  traffic  problems.  The 
department  is  also  used  to  check  the  actual  movement 
of  certain  freight  and  to  determine  if  shippers  are 
diverting  a  portion  of  it  after  arrangements  have  been 
made  for  certain  quantities.  The  department  can  also 
furnish  a  statement  of  the  extent  of  the  business  done 
by  large  shippers. 

Its  statistics  show  actual  earnings  per  ton  mile  on 
each  separate  commodity,  which  in  connection  with  the 
average  distance,  loading,  and  total  tonnage  of  each 
commodity,  forms  a  basis  for  intelligent  judgment  as  to 
the  relative  profitableness  of  carrying  various  com- 
modities. 

The  commissioner  of  taxes,  with  a  tax  commissioner 
for  the  Eastern  Lines  and  a  tax  agent  for  the  Coast 
Lines,  gives  his  entire  attention  to  the  matter  of  various 
state  assessment  of  taxes. 


EXAMPLES  OF  TYPICAL  ORGANIZATIONS       253 

There  are  a  manager  of  insurance,  a  secretary  of  the 
board  of  pensions,  and  a  publicity  agent,  all  reporting 
to  the  president.  Their  duties  are  the  usual  ones 
assigned  to  such  departments,  a  description  of  which 
will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Miscellaneous  Depart- 
ments. 

The  manager  of  station  advertising,  as  his  title  indi- 
cates, looks  after  all  matters  pertaining  to  advertise- 
ments posted  in  the  stations  of  the  company.  The 
applications  for  permission  to  display  advertisements 
are  many  and  come  from  widely  different  sources,  some 
of  which  might  well  bo  positively  objectionable,  and  all 
of  them  require  investigation  to  determine  their  suit- 
ability and  to  limit  the  quantity  to  be  displayed. 

Conclusion 

The  great  value  of  railway  transportation  is  patent  to 
all  thinking  men.  No  other  agency  benefits  a  community, 
enhances  values,  and  promotes  civilization  to  the  extent 
that  is  done  by  common  carriers.  The  prosperity  of 
large  communities,  of  states,  even  of  the  nation,  depends 
upon  the  ability  of  the  railroads  to  render  eflicient 
service. 

As  opposed  to  government  ownership  there  is  the 
alternative  of  consolidation,  the  merging  of  many  inde- 
pendent lines  and  systems  into  several  major  organiza- 
tions, which  to  a  great  majority  seems  preferable.  The 
advantage  to  be  derived  is  a  larger  and  more  stable 
organization  independent  of  all  risks  and  vicissitudes, 
permitting  the  more  economical  transaction  of  business. 
The  uniformity  of  practice,  standardization  of  equip- 
ment, material  reduction  in  employees,  especially  of  the 
executive  type,  the  elimination  of  duplication  of  records, 
and    the    like    will    contribute    to    decreased    operating 


254    EAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

expense  with  the  result  that  transportation  charges  to 
the  public  may  likewise  be  reduced. 

It  seems  to  one  who  studios  the  organization  and 
service  of  common  carriers  throughout  the  United  States, 
that  the  larger  the  system  the  more  efficient  and  orderly 
the  service.  The  larger  systems  in  the  country,  are 
rendering  a  service  that  is  without  parallel  the  world 
over,  due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  efficient  administra- 
tion. The  small  organizations  leave  much  to  be  desired 
in  this  regard. 


TEST    QUESTIONS 

These  questions  are  for  the  student  to  use  in  testing 
his  knowledge  of  the  assignment.  The  answers  are  not 
to  be  sent  to  the  University. 

1.  What  are  the  most  important  duties  of  the  freight  traffic 
department  ? 

2.  What  reports  are  furnished  traffic  departments  by  their 
agents  ? 

3.  What  determines  the  character  of  the  service  rendered? 

4.  Is  uniformity  of  service  more  essential  than  speed? 

5.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  freight  traffic  manager? 

6.  What  data  are  compiled  by  the  rate  statistical  depart- 
ment ? 

7.  How  is  a  division  freight  agent  distinguished  from  a 
general  agent? 

8.  What  are  the  duties  of  European  freight  agents? 

9.  Outline  the  freight  traffic  department  organization  of 
the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe. 

10.  With  what  is  the  tariff  bureau  concerned? 

11.  What  are  association  meetings? 

12.  What  division  of  traffic  department  supervises  the  han- 
dling of  milk  and  express? 

13.  What  is  the  average  revenue  from  passenger  train  serv- 
ice as  a  whole  ? 

14.  Are  passenger  trains  operated  always  with  the  idea  of 
present  profits? 

15.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  passenger  traffic  manager? 

16.  Summarize  the  organization  of  the  passenger  department 
of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy. 

17.  What  are  the  activities  of  the  immigration  agent? 

18.  Why  is  there  no  incentive  for  the  selling  agent? 

19.  What  is  the  most  important  single  feature  of  railway 
advertising? 

20.  What  is  the  largest  railway  passenger  association? 

21.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  freight  claim  depart- 
ment? 

22.  Into  what  classes  may  freight  claims  be  divided? 

23.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  voucher  clerk  ? 

255 


256        RAILWAY  ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

24.  How   is   the   industrial   bureau   related   to   the   traffic 
department  ? 

25.  How  may  the  purchasing  department  be  utilized  from 
the  traffic  standpoint? 

26.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  Central  Freight  Association? 

27.  What  is  meant  by  a  standing  committee  ? 

28.  What  are  information  circulars? 

29.  In  the  early  days  how  were  railway  accounts  main- 
tained ? 

30.  What  are  the  general  functions  of  the  accounting 
department  ? 

31.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  comptroller? 

32.  Into  what  classes  may  auditors  be  divided? 

33.  What  are  disbursements? 

34.  What  accounts  fall  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  auditor 
of  miscellaneous  accounts. 

35.  Summarize  the  activity  of  the  department  of  real  estate 
and  taxes. 

36.  How  is  insurance  on  company  property  usually  effected  ? 

37.  What  advantage  is  gained  by  the  establishment  of  a 
testing  department? 

38.  For  what  reasons  are  lamp  tests  made? 

39.  Why  is  it  desirable  for  the  railways  to  maintain  pub- 
licity departments? 

40.  For  what  offenses  are  arrests  usually  made  as  concerns 
transportation? 

41.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  car  accounting? 

42.  How  is  car  distribution  usually  affected? 

43.  What  advantage  is  gained  by  the  inauguration  of  fast 
freight  schedules? 

44.  Summarize  the  educational  plan  involving  the  Illinois 
Central  Railway. 

45.  What  is  the  range  of  death  benefits  ? 

46.  What  is  the  requirement  of  the  pension  department  of 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  respecting  pensions  to  superannuated 
employees? 

47.  What  were  the  passenger  earnings  per  mile  of  road  for 
the  Manistee  &  Northeastern  Railway? 

48.  What  is  the  total  mileage  of  the  Santa  Fe  System? 

49.  Does  the  vice  president  in  charge  of  operation  have 
charge  of  construction  matters  as  well? 

50.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  land  commissioner? 

51.  With  what  is  the  manager  of  station  advertising  con- 
cerned ? 


INDEX 


Accounting   department,    6.    200-221 ; 

(A.,  T.  &  S.   F.).  250-51 
Additional  tracks,  32-33 
Advertising,   180,   187-89,  253 
Advertising  manager,  184;    (C,  B.  & 

Q.),  186 
Agent,  station.     See  Station  agent 
Agricultural  exhibit,  186 
Air-brake  man,  68 
Amalgamation  of  railroads,  2,  18,  42, 

126,  252-54 
American    Railway    Accounting    Offi- 
cers' Association,  201 
Apprentices,  235-36  ;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.), 

129 
Architect  (A.,  T.  &  S.  P.),  63  ;   (L.  & 

N.).  62 
Atchison,  Topcka  &  Santa  Fe   Rail- 
way 
accounting  department  of,  250-51 
district  organization  of,  70-71,  73 
engineering  organization  of,  62-64, 

249-50 
extent  of,  69-70,  246 
financial  department  of,  247-49 
freight   traffic  department  of,   166- 

70 
general  organization  of,  246-53 
legal  department  of,   21-22,  249 
length  of  a  division  on,  69 
major  divisions  of,   77 
mechanical   department    of,    128-29 
operating  organization  of,  82,  145- 

48,   249-50 
purchasing   department   of,    241 
Auditor.      See  General  auditor 
Auditor  of  coal       traffic       (Pennsyl- 
vania), 215 
Auditor  of  disbursements,    204,    206- 
7;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  251;  (C, 
R.  I.  &  P.),  221;    (Pennsyl- 
vania), 215,  217 
Auditor  of  equipment  and  service  ac- 
counts   (U.  P.),   217-20 
Auditor  of  freight   receipts,    204,    206 
Auditor  of  morciiandise  accounts 

(Pennsylvania),    215 
Auditor  of  miscellaneous        accounts 

(Pennsylvania),  215-17 
Auditor  of  passenger     receipts,     204, 

206 
Auditor  of  passenger    traffic    (Penn- 
sylvania), 215 
Auditor  of  revenue,   206 
Auditor  of  -KUnion    Line     (Pennsyl- 
vania), 215,  217 
Axman,  36 

Baggage,  handling  of,  180-81  ;    (C.  & 

N.  W.).  100-101 
Baggage  agent  (C.  &  N.  W.).  100. 102. 

See    also    General     baggage 

agent 


Baggage  cashier  (C.  &  N.  W.),  100 
Baggage  clerk  (C.  &  N.  \V.),  100 
Baggage  foreman   (C.  &  N.  VV. ),  101 
Baggageman   (C,  B.  &  Q.),  184 
Banking  facilities,  16 
Bill  clerk,  92 
Blacksmith,  68 

Board  of  directors.     See  Directors 
Boiler  maker,  68,  122,  125 
Bondholders,  number  of,  10 
Brakeman,    95-96 
Braking,  regenerative,   55 
Bridge  engineer,    26,    37-39  ;    (A.,    T. 
&  S.  F.).  63  ;    (L.  &  N.),   62 
Bridge  foreman  (C.  &  N.  W.),  102 
Bridges 

construction  of,  27,  37-39 

foreman  of,  47 

maintenance  of,   111-12 
Bridges  and  buildings  force,  111-12 
Brotherhoods,   237 

Bureau  of  Railway  Economics,  223 
Butterworth,    F.   A.,    IfiO 
Butterworth.  F.  A.,  160 

Call  boy.  95 
Caller,  125 

Car  accountant,   95,    230  ;    (A.,   T.    & 
S.   F.),   145;    (M.  &  N.   E.), 
246 
Car  accounting,    230-31 
Car  checker,   92 
Carder,  91  ;    (I.  C).  87 
Car  distribution,   231-33 
Car  inspector,   121 
Carpenter,  68;    (M.  C),  112 
Car  repairer,  121 
Cars 

accounting   for,    230-231 
designing  and  construction  of.  118- 

20 
distribution   of.   231-33 
maintenance  of,  121-22,  124-26 
records  of,  140-43 
Car  service  accountant    (C,  R.   I.   & 

P.),  220 
Car  service  agent   (C,  M.  &  St.  P.). 

73 
Cashier,  88  ;    (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  218 
Cassatt,  A.  J.,  238 
Catenary,  54 

Central  Freight  Association,  193-99 
Central  of   Georgia    Huilway.   educa- 
tion of  apprentices.  235-36 
Central  Passenger  Association.  189 
Charter  of  a  railroad.  18 
Cliecker    (C.   &  N.    W.).   101 
Check-stripper    (C.  &  N.  W.),  101 
Chemist.     See  Chief  chemist 
Chesapeake  &  Oliio   R.ulway,  Icngtli 

of  a  division  on.  69 

Chicago  &  Eastern  Illinois  Railroad, 

tariff  bureau  of,  175 


257 


258 


INDEX 


Chicago   &   Northwestern   Railway 
Chicago  passenger  terminal  of,  97- 

105 
extent  of.  97 

length  of  a  division  on,  69 
major  divisions  of,    76 
Chicago   and   Ohio   River  committee, 

172     195 
Chicago,   Burlington  &  Quincy  Rail- 
road 
district   organization    of,    71,    73-74 
length  of  a  division  on,  69 
major  divisions  of,   76 
passenger  department  of,  182-86 
yard  of,   at  Galesburg,   91-92 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Puget  Sound, 

electrification   on,   52-55 
Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Rail- 
way 
district  organization  of,   73 
length  of  a  division  on,   69 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  Rail- 
way 
accovmting  department  of,  220-21 
length  of  a  division  on,  69 
Chief  chemist   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  128; 

(Pennsylvania),  227 
Chief  clerk   (C.  &  N.  W.),  104;    (C, 

B.   &  Q.),   184,  186;    (C,  R. 

I.   &  P.),  220 
Chief    electrician    (A.,    T.    &    S.    F.), 

128-29  ;    (C.    &   N.   W.),   104 
Chief    engineer,    24,    39,    72,    78,    108, 

210  ;   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  62,  82, 

148;   (C.  &  N.  W.),  102,  104; 

(L.    &    N.),    62  ;     (M.    &    N. 

E.),    244-45;    (M.    C),    112; 

(N.,  C.  &  St.  L.),  60  ;   (N.  Y. 

C),  149  ;   (Pennsylvania),  13 
Chief    engineer     of    maintenance    of 

way,  137 
Chief    of    motive    power     (Pennsyl- 
vania), 138 
Chief  of  police    (C.   &  N.   W.),   102, 

104 
Chief   of   tariff  bureau,   160,    162-63, 

173-76;     (A.,    T.    &    S.    F.), 

169  ;    (Erie),  162 
Chief    train    dispatcher,    94-95.      See 

also  Train  dispatcher 
Chief  traveling  auditor    (C,  R.   I.   & 

P.),   220 
Chief  usher  (C.  &  N.  W.),  103 
Cinder-pit   man,    68,    125 
City  passenger  agent    (C,  B.   &  Q.), 

185 
Claim  agent,  22,  85,  191-92;    (A.,  T. 

&    S.     F.),    249.       See    also 

General  claim  agent 
Claim  department,  190-92  ;    (A.,  T.  & 

S.  F.),  22,  249  ;    (C,  R.  I.  & 

P.),   220  ;    (Erie),   164 
Claims  for  loss  and  damage,  21,  190- 

92    249 
Cleaner  (c!  &  N.  W.),  104 
Coal  and  Coke  Agent,  160,  162 
Coaler    125 

Coal  inspector    (A.,  T.   &  S.   F.),  241 
Commercial  agent,  161,  163,  166;  (A., 

T.  &  S.  F.),  168-69;    (N.,  C. 

&  St.  L.),  171 
Commissary    department,    177,    181  ; 

(C.  &  N.  W.),  101-102;    (C, 

B.   &  Q.),   184 
Commissioner  of  safety   (A.,  T.  &  S. 

F.),   148 
Commissioner  of  taxes    (A.,  T.  &  S. 

F.),  252 


Competition  In  transportation.  139 

Comptroller,   16-17,   202-4,   206,    209-^ 
10  ;   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  247-4S 
250  ;    (C.   R.   I.   &  P.),   220 
(N.,     C.      &     St.      L.),     12 
(Pennsylvania),  13,  215 

Computer,  211.  214 

Conducting    transportation.    83-105 

Conductor.    94-96,    131,     202.     208-9. 
234  ;   (C.  &  N.  W.).  99-100 

Connecting    lines.    155-56,    159,    174. 
180,    200-201 

Consolidation    of    roads.      See   Amal- 
gamation of  railroads 

Construction  of  a  railroad,  24-28,  35- 
49 

Consulting        engineer        (Harriman 
Lines),  14  ;    (L.  &  N.),  62 

Contracts,    19-20 

Controlling  grades,  28 

Corporate  advice,  18—20 

Counter-check    man    (C.    &   N.    W. ), 
100 

CrossinsTS    4  4 4  5 

Custodian  of  building  (C.  &  N.  W.), 
104 


Departmental  organization,  82,  133- 
36.    148 

Designer,    39 

Designing  engineer,  39-42 ;  (L.  & 
N.),  62 

Design  versus   execution,   137-38 

Development  of  railway  organiza- 
tion.   2 

Dewsnup.  E.  R..  Railway  Organiza- 
tion and  Working,  86 

Director  of  maintenance  and  opera- 
tion   (Harriman    Lines).    14 

Director  of  purchases  and  supplies 
(Harriman  Lines).  14 

Directors 

powers  of,  9-11 
quorum  of.   11 
selection  of,  10 

Disbursements,  auditor  of.  See  Audi- 
tor of  disbursements 

Dispatching.     See  Train  dispatching 

Dispatching  operator.   94 

District  accountant  (C,  R.  L  &  P.). 
221 

District  engineer,  46,  71,  75  ;  (A.,  T. 
&  S.  F.),  82,  148  ;  (N.  Y. 
C),    46 

District  organization,   69-76,   80 

District  passenger  agent,  161,  181—82 

District  solicitor,  23;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.), 
22 

Diverting  clerk,    92 

Divisional  organization,  65-69.  71. 
80.    82.    134-36.   148 

Division  clerk   (C.  &  E.  I.).  175 

Division  engineer.  47,  67-68,  93.  108- 
9.  112-13.  133  ;  (A..  T.  &  S. 
F.),  82  ;  (L.  &  N.).  62;  (N.. 
C.  &  St.  L.),  60;  (N.  Y.  C), 
80 

Division  foreman  of  buildings  (M. 
C),  112 

Division   foreman    of   signals,    67,    75 

Division  freight  agent.  161,  163,  166, 
182;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  168- 
69,  172 

Division  passenger  agent  (C,  B.  & 
Q.),   184 

Division   roadmaster,   76 

Division  sheets,   174-75 


INDEX 


259 


Division    superintendent,    66-67,    69. 

72,  109.  133-36.  140-41,  166; 

(A.,    T.    &    S.    F.),    70,    82. 

148  ;    (C.  B.  &  Q.).   71  ;    (L,. 

&  N.).  62;   (N..  C.  &  St.  L.). 

60  ;    (N.   Y.   C),  80;    (Penn- 
sylvania). 71 
Division     superintendent     of    motive 

power    (N.   Y.    C),   80 
Division   yard   clerk.   234 
Draftsman.  36.   39.   211,  214 


Education,  235-37 

Electrical  engine€r,  127 ;  (A..  T.  & 
S.  F.),  129;  (Harriman 
Lines),   14 

Electrical  engineering,   50-60,  149 

Electric  elevator  operator  (C.  &  N. 
W.),  101 

Electrician.     See  Cliief  electrician 

Elevation  of  track,  31-32.   43-44 

Elevator  operator  (C.  &.  N.  W.),  104 

Elliott,  Howard,   10 

Emigrant  room   (C.  &  N.  W. ),  104 

Engineer.  See  the  succeeding  head- 
ings and  also:  Bridge  — , 
Chief  — ,  Consulting  — ,  De- 
signing — ,  District 
Division  — ,  Electrical 
Hydraulic  — .  Locating 
Mechanical  — ,  Office 
Resident  — .  .Signal 
Terminal  — ,  Track  eleva- 
tion — .  Valuation  — 

Engineer,  locomotive,  95,  113,  122, 
130-32,    135.    237 

Engineer  in  charge  of  bridges  and 
structures,   4 

Engineer  in  charge  of  party,  36 

Engineer  in  charge  of  roadway  and 
track,    47 

Engineering   department 

construction  work  of.  24-28.  37-49 
design,    35-37 
electrical,    50-60 
function  of,    5,   24-64 
organization   of,   37-49,   60-64 
reconstruction   work   of,    28-34 

Engineer  of  car  construction  (A.,  T. 
&   S.    F.),    128,    145 

Engineer  of  construction,  35  ;  (A.,  T. 
&  S.  F.),  63  ;  (L.  &  N.),  62; 
(N.,  C.   &  St.   L.).   60 

Engineer  of  grade  crossings.  44-45  ; 
(N.  Y.   C),  45 

Engineer  of  maintenance  of  way. 
46-48.  71-72.  75,  210;  (L. 
&  N.),  62;  (N.  Y.  C),  80  ; 
(Pennsylvania),   72 

Engineer  of  miscellaneous  work  (L. 
&  N.),  62 

Engineer  of  shop  extension  (A.,  T. 
&  S.  F.),  128 

Engineer  of  tests,  38  ;  (A..  T.  &  S. 
F.).  128 

Engineer  of  water  supply,  48  ;  (L. 
&  N.),   62 

Engine-house,    42 

Engine-house  foreman,  68.  94-95, 
113,   125,   131 

Engineman.  See  Engineer,  locomo- 
tive 

Engines.      See  I^iocomotives 

Kngine   terminal,   125 

Equipment,  maintenance  of,  68.  113- 
14.   120-26 


Erie  Railroad 

tariff  bureau  of.  162-63 
traffic   department   of,   164-65 
European    freight   agent,    164 
Excursion   rate.-j,   179,    188 
Executive    clerk    (Erie),    165 
Executive    department,    4,    11-15 
Express    matter,    handling    of.     100. 
181 

Fast  freight  lines,  165 
Fast  freight  movement.  233-35 
Financial   department 
function   of,   6 
officers  of,    16-17 
of  the  A.,  T.   &  S.   F.,  247-49 
Fireman,   95,   113,   130,   237 
Fire-up   man,  125 
Flagman,   36 
Floating  gangs,   108 
Foreign   freight   agent,    161,    103-64; 

(A.,  T.   &  S.  F.),   168 
Foreman  of  bridges   (M.  C. ),  112 
Foreman    of    bridges    and    building.s. 

47,   67,   109,   111-12;    (A.,   T. 

&  S.  F.).  82 
Foreman   of  engine-house,   113.     See 

also    Engine-hou.se    foreman 
Freight  agent.     See  Division  freight 

agent ;         General        freight 

agent 
Freight  auditor   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.).  251 
Freight      claim      department.        See 

Claim    department 
Freight  station,   86-95 
Freight   traffic   department,    155-76 
Freight  traffic  manager,  160-62,  166; 

(A..  T.   &   S.    F.).   166,   169  ; 

(C,  B.  &  Q.).  184.    See  also 

Traffic  manager 
Freight     transportation,     conducting 

of,  83-96 
Front-end   inspector,  122 
Fuel,  records   of,    131-32 
Fuel  accountant.    85 
Fuel  agent,   240 
Fuel  foreman,   131 

Galesburg  yard    (C.  B.  &  Q.),  91-92 
Gat«man    (C.   &  N.   W.),   99.   102-3 
General    agent,    161,    163,    166.    182; 

(A.,    T.    &    S.    F.),    168-70; 

(C,   B.   &  Q.),    185 
General   Attorney    (A.,   T.   &  S.   F.), 

22,   247 
General  auditor,   203,   206,  208;    (A., 

T.  &  S.   F.),  245;    (C.  R.   I. 

&   P.).   220 
General  baggage  agent,  161  ;    (A.,  T. 

&    S.    F.).    150;     (C.    &    N. 

W.),  102;   (C.  B.  &  Q.).  184 
General    claim    agent    (A.,    T.    &    S. 

F.).    249.      See    also    Claim 

agent 
General    counsel.    17;    (A..    T.    &    S. 

F.).    247;     (L.    &    N.).    13; 

(M.   &   N.   E.),   246;    (Penn- 
sylvania).   13 
General    freiglu    agent.    160-63.    166. 

173,    176,    200  ;    (A.,   T.   &   S. 

F.).   166-68.   170;    (Pennsyl- 
vania),   170 
General  freight  and  passenger  agent, 

181  ;    (M.   &  N.  E.),   246 
General    freight-house    foreman     (I. 

C),   87 


260 


INDEX 


General  inspector  of  transportation 
(C,  B.  &  Q.),  74 

General  live  stoclt  agent  (A.,  T.  & 
S.    F.).    169 

General  manager,  72,  76-78,  134, 
136.  139-43,  161,  166.  181, 
230  ;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  77, 
82,  148;  (C.  &  N.  W.),  76; 
(C,  B.  &  Q.),  76;  (L.  & 
N.),  62,  74;  (M.  &  N.  E.), 
244;  (N.  &  W.),  12-13; 
(N.,  C.  &  St.  L.),  12; 
(Pennsylvania),  77,  138, 
239;    (U.   P.),    77 

General  passenger  agent,  160,  181- 
82,  200  ;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.), 
170;  (C.  &  N.  W.),  102; 
(C,  B.  &  Q.),  184-86 

General  purchasing  agent  (A.,  T.  & 
S.  F.),  241.  See  also  Pur- 
ciiasing  agent 

General  repair  shop,  125-26 

General  road  foreman.  127 

General  roadmaster,  76;  (L.  &  N. ), 
62;  (N.,  C.  &  St.  L.),  60. 
See  also   Roadmaster 

General  solicitor  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  22, 
249 

General  storelteeper,  240  ;  (A.,  T.  & 
S.  F. ),  241.  See  also  Store- 
keeper 

General  superintendent,  70-72.  75- 
76,  136,  140,  166,  230  ;  (A., 
T.  &  S.  F.),  70-71,  73,  77, 
82,  148  ;  (C.  &  N.  W.),  76  ; 
(C,  B.  &  Q.),  71.  76  ;  (M. 
&  N.  E.),  244;  (N.  T.  C), 
76.  80;  (Pennsylvania),  71- 
72  ;    (U.   P.),  72,  77 

General  superintendent  of  electric 
division    (N.   Y.    C),    149 

General  superintendent  of  motive 
power     (Pennsylvania),    138 

General  superintendent  of  transpor- 
tation (Pennsylvania),  74. 
170 

General  supervisor  of  transportation 
(C,  M.  &  St.  P.).  73 

General  watch  and  cloclt  inspector 
(A.,  T.   &  S.   F.).   148 

Government  ownership,  253 

Grade  crossings,   44-45 

Grades  in  traclt,    28 

Grand  Trunlt  Railway,  St.  Clair 
River   Tunnel,   50-51 

Harriman  Lines,  organization  of.  13- 
15 

Head  bralceman,  95 

Head  matron   (C.  &  N.  W.).  103 

Hearings  on  rates,   158 

Heat  treatment  laboratory  (Penn- 
sylvania),  225-26 

Hill,   O.    C.  92 

Holbrook,   E.,   209 

Hollerith  machine,  205 

Home-seekers'   excursions,  186 

Hostler,  68.  125 

Hump,    91-92 

Hump  engine  foreman  (C,  B.  &  Q.), 
91 

Hump  rider   (C,  B.  &  Q.),  91 

Hydraulic  engineer,  48 

Illinois   Central   Railroad 

Chicago  freight  station.   86-88 
education  of  apprentices,  235-36 
tariff  bureau  of,  175  "     • 


Immlgrratlon    agent    (C,    B.    &    Q.), 

186 
Immigration  bureau,  177,  180 
Importance    of    transportation.     1-2, 

253 
Industrial   and  spur  tracks,   34 
Industrial  bureau,  157,  19;i-93 
Industrial   commission    (A.,   T.    &  S. 

F.),   168 
Industrial      organization      compared 

with  railway,   3-4,  138-39 
Inspection    of   construction    material, 

26,   39,   240 
Inspector   of   block-signals.    67.      See 

also   Signal   inspector 
Inspector  of  locomotives,  122 
Inspector  of  shops,   127 
Insurance    companies    as    holders    of 

railway  securities,  11 
Insurance  department,   223-24 
Interline  billing  201 
Interstate    Commerce    Commission 
hearings  before,  162-63 
reports   to,    74 

Kruttschnitt,  Julius.  15 

Laboratories   (Pennsylvania),  224-28 
Laboratory  car  (Pennsylvania),  227- 

28 
Lake  Shore  and   Michigan   Southern 
Railway,      maintenance      of 
equipment  on,  113 
Land,  securing  of,  25 
Land  commissioner   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F. ), 

251 
Legal  department 
function  of,   7,   17-23 
of  a  small  line,   23 
of  the  A.,  T.  &  S.  F..  21-22,  249 
Levelman,   36 
Line  foreman,  95 
Lineman,    95 
Line  officers,  138;    (A.,  T.  &  S.   F.), 

64 
Litigation,   20-21 
Live  stock   agent.     See   General  live 

stock    agent 
Local  agent.     See  Station  agent 
Locating  engineer,  35-37 
Locomotive    engineer,    95,    113,     122. 

130-32.   135,   237 
Locomotive   inspector,   122 
Locomotives 
electric,    54-55 
maintenance  of,  121-26 
Mallet,    55 

records  of,  130.  141-48,  252 
types  of,   115-18 
Long  Island  Railroad,   electrification 

on,  51-52 
Loss    and    damage    claims,    21,    190- 

92,    249 
Loss    and    damage    investigator,    192 
Louisville   &   Nasliville    Railroad 
district  organization  of,   74 
length  of  a  division  on,  69 
officers  of,  13 

Machinist,   68 

McPherson.  Logan  G.,  The  Workings 

of   the   Railroad,    2 
Mail,  handling  of.  lOO-lol.  181;    (A., 

T.  &  S.  F.),  250 
Mail  clerk    (C.  &  N.  W.),  101 
Mail  foreman    (C.   &  N.   W.),   101 
Mail  statistician    (C.   B.    &  Q.).   184 


INDEX 


261 


Mail     traffic      manager      (Harriman 

Lines),    14 
Maintenance  of  equipment,    G8,   113- 

14,    120-26 
Maintenance  of  way,  67-68,   106-13  ; 

(Pennsylvania),   112 
Major   divisions,    76-78 
Alanager   of   insurance    (A.,   T.   &   S. 

F.),   253 
Manager   of  station  advertising    (A., 

T.   &  S.   F.),   253 
Manager   of   trealing   plants    (A.,   T. 

&  S.  F.),  63 
Manifest  clerk,  92 
Manistee   &    Nortlieastern     Railroad, 

organization  of,   242-46 
Mason      (Pennsylvania),     112;      (M. 

C),  112 
Master  Car  Builders'  Association,  120 
Master      carpenter      (Pennsylvania), 

112 
Master  mechanic,  66-68,  71,  113.  125, 

130-31,    133-34;     (A.,    T.    & 

S.    F.),   74,    82;    (N.    Y.    C). 

80 
Material  clerk,   27 
Matron    (C.   &  N.   W.),   102-3 
Mechanical  department,    7.    115-32 
Mechanical  engineer  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F. ), 

128 
Mechanical  superintendent,  71-72,  74, 

128  ;    (A.,    T.    &    S.    F.),    82. 

129.   148 
Messenger  boy   (I.  C. ),  87 
Michigan     Central     Railroad,     main- 
tenance of  way  on,  112 
Motor-driver   (C.  &  N.  W.),  101 

Nashville,   Chattanooga   &    St.    Louis 
Railway 
engineering  organization   of.   60 
freight  traffic  department  of,  170- 

71 
officers  of,  12 
News  bureau,  228 
New   York   Central  Lines 
electrification  on.   56-59 
major  divisions  of.  76 
operating   organization   of.    67.    78- 

82,    148-49 
repair  shop, 126 
Norfolk  &  Western  Railway,  officers 
of,  12-13 


Office  engineer.  27,  211 
Operating  department,   5,   65-149 
Operating  unit,    G5-82 
Organization,   railway 

accounting.    200-221 

beginnings  of,  2 

compared  witli  industrial,  3-4.  138- 
39 

complexity  of,  2-3 

definition  of.   3 

departmental.  82,  133-36.  148 

district.    69-76 

divisional.    65-69.    134-36 

engineering,    24-6  4 

general  scheme  of.  3-8 

major   divisions   in,    76-78 

miscellaneous.    222-41 

operating.   65-149 

supervision,    9-23 

traffic.    155-99 

types  of.    133-37 

typical   examples   of,    242-53 

unit  system  of.  136-37 


Out-bound   foreman    (I.   C),   87 
Overcharge  claims,   191-92,   249 
Uvercliarge  investigator,  192 


Painter.  68  ;   (M.  C),  112 
Parcel  room   (C.  &  N.  W.),  103 
Passenger  agent   (C.  &  N.  \V. ),  102. 
See   also    General   passenger 
agent 
Passenger  traffic  department,  187-89 
Passenger  traffic  manager,  160,  179- 
81  ;    (A.,    T.    &    S.    F\),    166, 
169  ;   (C,  B.  &  Q.),  184-86 
Passenger  transportation,  97-105 
Paymaster   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.).  246 
Pennsylvania   Railroad 

accounting   department   of.    215-17 
district  organization  of,  71-72,  74 
education  of  employees.  236-37 
freight  traffic  department  of,  170 
length  of  a  division  on,  69 
maintenance  of  way  on,  112 
officers   of,   13 

pension  department  of,  238-39 
testing  department  of,   224-28 
Pensions,   238-39 
Physical  laboratory    (Pennsylvania), 

224-25 
Pilot,   212-13 
Plans   for    railway   construction.    24- 

25,   35-37,  39-42 
Police,  229-30 
Preferred  line.  156 
President,  11-12,  140,  161,  181  ;    (A.. 
T.     &    S.     F.).    241.     247-48. 
250-51,  253;    (M.  &  N.  B.). 
244 
assistant  to,  11-13 
selection  of,  10-11 
Publicity  agent   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  253 
Publicity  department,  228-29 
Pumps,  48 

Purchasing  agent,  193,  210,  240  ;  (A.. 
T.  &  S.  F.),  241;   (L.  &  N.), 
13  ;    (M.  &  N.  E.),  244 
Purchasing  department,   7.  193,  239- 
41 


Quorum  of  directors,  11 
Quotation  clerk,  176 


Railway  freight  associations,   193-98 

Railway  passenger  associations,  189 

Rate-making,    158-59 

Rate  quotation  clerk,   163 

Real  estate  agent,  222-23 

Rear  brakeman,   96 

Receiving  clerk    (I.   C. ).  86-87 

Reconstruction.   28-34 

Regenerative  braking,  55 

Registrar  of  stock.   16 

Regulation  of  railwavs.  20 

Relay  man    (I.   C),   87 

Relief,   237-38 

Reorganization,  18-19 

Repairs.     See   Maintenance 

Reports 

mechanical  department,   129-32 
operating  department,  138-45 
traffic  conditions,  156 

Residencies,  26,   37 

Resident   engineers,   26,    37,    75  ;    (aot. 
C.  &  St.  L.),  JO 

Resolutions  of  directors.  19 

Revenue,  sources  of.  155.  17t 


262 


INDEX 


Ripley,  E.   P.,  72-73.  77 

Road  engineer  foreman.  67 

Road  foreman  of  engines,  68,  94.  Hi 

Roadmaster,  67-68.  76,  106,  109-10  ■ 
(A.,  T.  &  S.  P.),  82-106 
B.  &  O.),  106-7  ;  (C.  &  N 
W.),  102  ;  (C.  B.  &  Q.).  106  . 
(M.  &  N.  E.).  244;  (M.  C. ) . 
112.  See  also  General  road- 
master 

Rodman,  36  „  .     „„ 

Routing  clerk   (I.  C).  87 

Santa  Fe,  Prescott  &  Phoenix  Lines, 

77 
Santa  Fe  Refrigerating  Despatch  Co., 

Scale  man  (I.  C),  87 

Sealer   (I.  C),  87  „    ^    t^  x     o.o 

Secretary,  15;  (A.,  T  &  S.  F.).  248; 
(L.  &  N.).  13  ;  (M.  &  N.  E.), 
246;    (Pennsylvania).    13 

Secretary  of  the  board  of  pensions 
(A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  253 

Section  foreman.  106,  110-11  ;  (Penn- 
sylvania), 112 

Section  gang,  106,  110-11 

Shippers'   Associations,   158-59 

Shops,  42.  See  also  Mechanical  de- 
partment 

Signal  engineer,  47.  75,  113  ;  (A.,  T. 
&  S.  F.),  63  ;  (L.  &  N.),  62  ; 
(M.  C).  112;  (N.,  C.  &  St. 
L,.),  60 

Signal  foreman,  71 ;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.), 
82 

Signal   inspector,    67,    112;    (M.    C), 

Slgnalma^,^67-68,^  n2^   i^t.l)^  6^,- 
Signal  supervisor.  6J.  7,1.  75.^10^9.  112^; 

&  N.  W.).  1(T2 
South  Water  St.  qtation,  Chicago   (I. 

Special  agent,  230  ;  (C.  &  N  W.),  102 

Special  policeman    (I.   O:),  87 

Staff  officers,  138;    (A.,  T.   &  S..F.), 

63,        145-48 ;        (Harnman 

Lines),  14 
Stakeman,  36  ,^    »    c    i-.  s 

State  solicitor,  23;   (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.). 

22     249 
Station,  freight,    86-95 
Station,  passenger,  97-105  „„   „„     „, 
Station    agent.    67,    83-86,    88-89,    94, 

131,    135,    176.    181-82,    206, 

233-34,    237;     (A.,    T.    &    S. 

F.),  172,  248;   (C.  B.  &  Q.). 

184-85;     (C,    R.    I.    &    P.), 

220  ;   (M.  &  N.  E.),  244 
Station  buildings,  41 
Stationer,  240  ,^    o    -kt   -^r  ^ 

Stationmaster,  94-95;    (C.  &  N.  W.), 

102 
Station  operator.  67         „     „    „     t^  ^ 
Statistician,    211;    (A.,   T.   &   S.    F.). 

251 
Statistics 

in  rate  making,  162 
in  the  traffic  department,  171-73 
of  freight    business,    204-6,    251-52 
of  the  mechanical  department,  129- 

32 
of  the  operating  department,  138- 

45,   207 
Stockholders.   9-10 


Storekeeper,   210.     See  also  General 

storekeeper 

Stowman   (1.  C),  87 

Superintendent  of  car  service,   230 

Superintendent  of  commissary  (C, 
B.  &  Q.),  184 

Superintendent  of  freight  transporta- 
tion (I'ennsylvania),  74,  170 

Superintendent  of  motive  p6wer,  72, 
78,  113,  126-28,  131.  137, 
210  ;  (C.  &  N.  W.),  102  ;  (M. 
&  N.  E.),  244  ;  (N.  Y.  C), 
80;    (Pennsylvania),   72 

Superintendent  of  passenger  terminal, 
105  ;  (C.  &  N.  W.),  98,  102, 
104 

Superintendent  of  passenger  trans- 
portation (Pennsylvania),  74 

Superintendent  of  shops,  113  ;  (A.,  T. 
&  S.   F.),  129 

Superintendent  of  telegraph,  148 

Superintendent  of  track,  27  ;  (Al.  C), 
112 

Superintendent  of  transportation,  71, 
230,  234  ;  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.), 
73,  145;  (C,  B.  &  Q.),  73- 
74  ;  (C,  M.  &  St.  P.),  73  ; 
(L.  &  N.),  74;  (Pennsyl- 
vania), 72  ;    (U.  P.),  77 

Superintendent  of  treating  plants,  49  ; 
(L.    &   N.),    62 

Superintendent  of  water  service,   75 

Supervision,   general   plan   of,   9-23 

Supervisor  of  apprentices  (A.,  T.  & 
S.  F.),  129 

Supervisor  of  bridges  and  buildings 
(L.   &  N.),   62 

Supervisor  of  signals,  67.  See  also 
Signal  supervisor 

Supervisor  of  track,  67 

Supervisor  of  water  service  (A.,  T. 
&  S.  F.),  63 

Surveying,   35-36 

Switch  tender,  234  ;    (C,  B.  &  Q.),  91 

System  officers  (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.),  63 


Tankman,  68 

Tariff  bureau,  162-63,  173-76 

Tariffs,    publication    of,    159,    162-63, 

173-76 
Taxes,   222-23,   252 
Team  tracks,  88 
Telautograph,   98-100 
Telegraph  operator,  93-95 
Terminal 

as  a  division,  68-69 

engineer,   46 

passenger,   97-105 

reconstruction  of,  33 

yard,   90-94 
Terminal  passenger  and  ticket  agent 

(C.  &  N.  W.),  102 
Testing  department    (Pennsylvania), 

224-28 
Ticket  auditor    (A.,  T.   &  S.  F.),   251 
Tie  inspector,  240;    (A.,  T.  &  S.  F.). 

241 
Ties,  48-49,  108 
Timber  and  tie  agent    (N.,  C.   &  St. 

L.),   60 
Tinsmith,  68 
Tooler,  68 
Topograplier,   36 
Towman    (C.   &  N.  W.),  99-100 
Tracing  clerk    (C,   R    &   Q.),   184 
Track   elevation   engineer,   43-44 
Track  foreman,  95 


INDEX 


263 


additional,   32-33 
construction  of,  27,   40 
elevation  of,   31-32,   43-44 
industrial  and  spur,  34 
in  electric  zone,  N.   Y.  C,   58-59 
maintenance    of,    107-13 
reconstruction  of,  30 
team.  88 
Trackwalker,    110-11 
Traffic  associations,  158 
Traffic  department,    5-6,    155-99 
Traffic  manager,    162,   176,    181;    (M. 
&    N.    E.),    244-45;     (N.    & 
W. ),    13.      iSee   also   Freight 
traffic  manager 
Train  announcer    (C.    &   N.    W. ),    98, 

10  2-3 
Train  auditor,  208-9  ;  (C,  R.  I.  &  P.), 

220—21 
Train  dispatcher,   67,   84,  94;    (M.   & 

N.   E.),   244 
Train   dispatching,   9  3-94 
Trainmaster,    66-68,    71,    93-96,    143, 
234  ;    (A.,   T.    &    S.    F. ) ,    82  ; 
(C.   &  N.  W.),  98 
Train    operation   in   passenger   termi- 
nal,  99-100 
Transfer  clerk,   15 
Transitman,   36 
Transportation 

conducting   of,    83-105 
development   of,   2 
importance  of,  1-2 
number  of  people  engaged  In,  1 
Transportation    inspector    (A.,    T.    & 

S.  F.),  73 
Traveling    accountant    (A.,    T.    &    S. 

F.),   251 

Traveling  auditor,  207  ;    (A..  T.  &  S. 

F.),    251;    (C.   R.    I.    &   P.). 

220  „    „ 

Traveling  freight  agent   (A..  T.  &  S. 

F.),    168-70,    172 
Travehng  fuel  car  (N.  P.),  236 
Traveling  passenger  agent,  182,  188  ; 
(A.,   T.    &   S.    F.),   170  ;    (C, 
B.  &  Q.),  185-86 
Traveling  time  accountant,  221 


Treasurer,  16-17.  200,  203  ;   (A.,  T.  & 

S.    F.),   247-48 
Treasury   department,   6,    16-17 
Treating  plant  for  ties,   48-49 
Trucker    (O.   &   N.   W.),  98,   101;    Cl. 

C),  86-87 
Tunnels,   41,  50-51 

Uniformity  of  service,  158 

Union   Pacific  System 

accounting  department  of,  217-20 
district  organization  of,  72 
major  divisions  of,  76-77 

Unions,    237 

Unit,  opei-ating,  65-82 

Unit  of  work,  139,  144 

Unit  system,  136-137 

Usher    (C.   &   N.    W.),   102-3 

Valuation  committee,   210-11 
Valuation  department,   7-8,   209-14 
Valuation    engineer,    209-l'l  ;    (A.,   T. 

&  S.  F.),  63 
Vice  presidents,  12-15,  78,  158,  160- 
61,  163,  166,  181,  208  :  (A., 
T.  &  S.  F.),  62,  75.  128-29, 
145,  148,  241,  24"g-50  ;  (C, 
B.  &  Q.),  184;  (Harriman 
Lines),  14-15;  (L.  &  N.), 
13  ;  (M.  &  N.  E.),  244,  246  ; 
(N.,  C.  &  St.  L.),  12  ;  N.  & 
W.),  12-13;  (Pennsylvania), 
13,  77,  138,  170,  239 
Voucher  clerk,  192 

Wnter  supply,   48,  75 
Weigher    (C.  &  N.  W.),  101 
Wiper,  125 

Yard  clerk,  234 

Yardmaster,    67,    89-96,    234;    (C.    & 
N.  W.),  98 

kinds  of,  40,  90-91 
of  C,  B.  &  Q.,  at  Galesburg.  91-92 
reconstruction  of,   33-34 
terminal,  90-94 

Zones,  electric,  50-60,  149 


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